uwu^w^u^-W^^^^AMfl^^ 




DRILL LISTS IN 0. S. HISTORY, 

By R. h:. holbrook, 

Vice-President National Normal University. 

12 mo. Price. 25c. 

■'This littlebook is designed as a companion work to the author's 'Outlines of 
United States History,' previously issued. The two books should be used together 
by the teacher, in order to secure the best results from them. The drill lists are 
a series of groups of dates, beginning with the earlier explorations of the coun- 
try, including the explorations, settlements, congresses, presidents, parties, Avars, 
territorial changes, down to the temperance reforms of the present day. The 
second part of the book considers methods in teaching United States history and 
abounds in useful hints, which the wide-awake teacher will find oi great value. 
The articles on citizenship and voting are commendable as serving the excellent 
purpose of clearing away part of the general ignorance on the subject. On the 
whole, the teacher is offered in this little work a very valuable assistant at a very 
siight cost."— School Herald. 



C 



Giving f 
memory i 
brief, the '. 
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WITH L 
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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 




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Shelf.U.£.\ 

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



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ine of Bible with 
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GY. 



IATIONS AND 

d be Taught. 



GEI ' ~~ZT ' JHULE." 

A new System whereby a good knowledge of German may be obtained in a shprt 
time. 

Vol. l, l2mo, boards, post-paid, ..... 60c. 

Vol. 2, " 60c. 

Two volumes in one, with complete vocabulary, large 12mo, 

post-paid, ........ $1.00. 

"In our judgment, the system of Prof. Gerfen seems the best yet put forth for 
acquiring correctly the German language. The progress that has been made 
during the last ten years in the methods^ of teaching German is -indeed remarka- 
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the American people is even still more remarkable. Great progress has been made 
in the way of improved system of study, until we at length reach the latest, most 
simple, and most efficient of all. Most of its excellence lies in the proper classifi- 
cation of the subject-matter, which enables the student to obtain at a glance and 
at the outset, a clear view of the structure of the language, so that every step for- 
ward that he takes is taken understandingly. This in itself is an important thing 
in the mastery of any subject, whether of language or of anything else. Where 
ever the system has been tried it has proved in all its details thoroughly satisfac- 
tory, the pupil acquiring the faculty of reading, writing, and speaking German in 
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v; 



THE NEW METHOD OH SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS, 

FOR 

Teachers of Rural, Village, City, Normal, and Collegiate Schools, 

Showing how the Best Methods of Teaching will Result in the 
Best School Expositions, and how the Best School Expo- 
sitions will Suggest the Best Methods of Teaching. 

By R. HEBER HOLBROOK, 

Vice-President National Normal University, Lebanon, O. 

Post-paid, 75 Cents. 

The work is composed of two parts. The first, the practical portion, is given to 
School Expositions, embracing one hundred pages; the second, comprising a 
number of appendixes, is devoted to the philosophical elucidation of the princi- 
ples embraced in the foregoing. This latter portion is, in one sense, the more val- 
uable part of the book, as it will give the student of teaching an insight into the 
spirit and principles of the Exposition Methods of the preceding portion. In every 
sentence there appears not what may be done, but what really has been done. 

Appendix D, on " Outlining," is worth many times the value of the book. It 
presents the Normal Method of Outlining, known as the Exponential Method, as 
invented by President Alfred Holbrook. This system is the delight and invaluable 
instrument of thousands of Normalites. 

Outlines of United States History, 

A Hand-Book of Beady Reference for 

STUDENTS, GENERAL READER, AND TEACHERS. 

By R. HEBER HOLBROOK, 

Vice-President National Normal University, Lebanon, O. 

12mo, Cloth, Post-paid, 75 Cents. 

This is a new and revised edition of a very familiar work. It is recognized by 
teachers everywhere, who are acquainted with it, as one of the most complete, 
systematical, thoroughly indexed, and cheapest works in U. S. History, published. 
It is especially valuable in that it presents the facts of our Nation's history in a 
compact arrangement which gives relative and developmentary significance to each 
event. It is a complete outline, by the " Exponential Method," showing upon the 
part of the author a profound and original mastery of the progress and growth of 
bur Nation. The first page presents, in three great "Eras" and nine great 
" Periods," an analysis of the whole history, which is as complete and beautiful 
as it is original. 

No teacher of United States History should fail to give this work careful atten- 
tion. We recommend it most heartily. 

It is not designed to supplant other text-books, but is a companion book for the 
teacher to beused for suggestion and guidance in the teaching of the subject with 
any adopted text. 

C. K. HAMILTON & CO., Publishers, 

LEBANON, OHIO. 



<s 



Parietal Bone. 



Crbit. ~- 

Lower Jaw. 

Cerrical Vertebra. 
Shoulder Blade. 



Humerus 



Lumbar Vertebra* 

Ilium 




Temporal Bene. 



Clavicle. 



II: :m 



Carpus 
Metacarpus 



Patella. 



Tarsus. 

Metatarsal 

Phalange*. 



THE 



ANALYTIC SERIES 



OF 



TEACHERS' AIDS. 



PHYSIOLOGY: 



A MANUAL OF 1000 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS SYSTEMATICALLY ARRANGED, 



CONTAINING A 



Full Treatment of the Physiological Effects of Alcohol and 

Narcotics, with a Complete Analytic Outline of 

the Subject, and Notes on Teaching. 



,fcV- 




AN AID IN TEACHING AND IN PREPARING 
FOR EXAMINATION. 



By W. A. CLARK, 

Instructor in College of Science, National Normal University. 



C. K. HAMILTON & CO. 



LEBANON, OHIO. 



OF 






COPVRIGHT, I: 

EY 

C. K, HAMILTON. 



PREFACE. 



THIS little manual finds the warrant for its existence in the 
continued demand for " Question Books " on the Common 
School Branches. Its aim is to furnish teachers the proper 
materials for a rapid but comprehensive review of the subject. 
It may also be used as a basis of class work, furnishing an 
orderly arrangement of topics for investigation and discussion. 
The matter has been carefully selected; and it is believed it will 
be found to cover, with some degree of completeness, the entire 
field. The Analytic Outline, which is the skeleton of the entire 
body of questions, will greatly assist the memory by giving sys- 
tem and definiteness to the study. It is as logical as is consist- 
ent with the design of the book. The illustrations will aid in 
understanding the answers to many questions. The Didactic 
Notes, necessarily very brief, contain suggestions of methods of 
teaching the various subjects, and indicate sources of materials 
for illustration and experiment. It is hoped that they may aid 
the progressive teacher in his efforts to do pleasant and profita- 
ble work. 

iii 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE. 

General Didadlic Note, . 5 

General Outline, 7 

Scope and Divisions of the Science, . . . . g 

Cells, 11 

Chemical Elements and Proximate Principles, . . . 14 

Tissues, 17 

Osseous System, 25 

Muscular System, 37 

Articulatory System, . .46 

Digestive System, 51 

Absorptive System, . 67 

Circulatory System, 72 

Respiratory System, 84 

Excretory System, 94 

Cerebro-Spinal System in General, 104 

Organs of Special Sense, 114 

Sympathetic Nervous System, 125 

Alcohol and Narcotics, 127 

General Hygiene and Therapeutics, 144 

iv 



GENERAL DIDACTIC NOTE. 



THE successful teacher of Physiology must be an enthusias- 
tic student, a leader of enquiring minds seeking a knowl- 
edge of their own clay tenements, rather than a formal 
instructor in scientific truth collected and systematized by others. 
He must be able by the power of his imagination to transform 
the skeleton from a mere collection of bones into a beautifully 
contrived mechanism for protection, support, and locomotion; 
he must see in the heart not a hollow muscle merely, but a won- 
derful little engine, pumping the life fluid into every cranny of 
the "living walls;" and to him the eye must be not only a finely 
constructed optical instrument, but a veritable "window of the 
soul." His success depends upon his power of idealizing. 

Physiology is pre-eminently suited to investigation by out- 
lining. A General Outline should first be presented to the class, 
or rather developed from the pupils themselves by skillful ques- 
tioning, and then drilled upon thoroughly day after day until 
each pupil can give it orally or place it on. the blackboard from 
memory. Various classifications and forms of the general out- 
line may be used, to suit the grade of the class and the views of 
the teacher. The Special Outline for each separate division of 
the subject should be developed by the pupils in their own prep- 
aration of the lesson, and then discussed and revised in the 
recitation. 

Important points should be made prominent, and many 
minor matters which are of value only to specialists should be 
entirely omitted. Beware of trying to teach too much. Give 
the instruction in Hygiene the first place, remembering, how- 
ever, that all rational views on hygienic matters are conditioned 

v 



vi General Didactic Note. 



on a knowledge of the structure and functions of the various 
organs of the body. 

The use of materials obtained from the butcher's shop and 
other sources seems so necessary to good teaching as to render 
superfluous any recommendation here; but it is well known that 
many good teachers fail of their highest success by neglecting 
to use such materials as can be readily obtained in the neighbor- 
hood of any school. Make the phenomena real by presenting 
them before the class in actual existence as well as in descriptive 
words. Use the blackboard ! 

The order of subjects adopted in this book is well suited to 
advanced classes; but for more elementary instruction the sim- 
plest and most direct method of developing the science is by 
beginning with the study of the articulated skeleton. 

The instruction on Alcohol and Narcotics should all tend 
toward the prevention of the use of intoxicating drinks and 
tobacco; but good hygienic instruction here, as elsewhere, is 
based upon a knowledge of the nature of the poisons and their 
effects upon man in his three-fold nature, physical, intellectual, 
and moral. No theories of individual responsibility and per- 
sonal liberty should keep the teacher from doing his whole duty 
in this matter. 



GENERAL OUTLINE. 



Human Body. 
i 1 Cells. 
i 2 General description. 
2 2 Structure. 
3 2 Classification. 
4 2 Development. 
5 2 Vitality. 
2 1 Chemical Elements. 
i 2 Nature. 
2 2 Number. 
3 2 Enumeration. 
4 2 Combination. 
3 1 Proximate Principles. 
i 2 Nature. 
2 2 Classification. 
4 1 Tissues. 

i 2 Differentiation. 
2 2 Classification. 
13 Supporting. 
23 Contractile. 
33 Storage. 
43 Conductive. 
5 1 Apparatuses. 

I 2 Of Internal Mechanism. 
i3 Motor Apparatus. 
1 4 Osseous System. 

is General Study of Bones. 
25 Analysis of Human Skeleton. 
35 Functions of Bones. 
45 Hygiene. 
2 4 Muscular System. 

is General Study of Muscles. 
25 Analysis of the System. 
35 Functions of Muscles. 
45 Hygiene. 

vii 



viii General Chdlitoe. 



3 4 Articulatory System. 

is Structure of Articulations 

25 Classification. 

35 Movements. 

45 Hygiene. 
2'^ Nutritive Apparatus. 
I-* Digestive r ; .- : - — 

:- r Apparatus. 

:■' Poods. 

35 Processes. 

45 Hygiene. 
: Absorptive System. 

15 Apparatus. 

25 Processes. 

: Hygiene. 
3 4 Circulatory System. 

:- Apparatus. 

; : Blood. 

■ Punctions. 

45 Hygiene. 
4 4 Respiratory System. 

15 Apparatus. 

25 AtmosppT: - 

--': Processes. 

4= Hygiene. 
-- Excretorj System. 

] ■ Ki 3 c e 

i __/untgs. 

35 Liver. 

_ ritin. 
2 2 Of External Relations : Sensory App2-: 
1 3 Cerebro- Spinal System. 
i 4 System in general. 

1 5 Apparatus. 

: r Punctions. 
Hygiene. 
2* Organs of Special Sense. 
: The Eve. 

25 The Ear. 
The Nc s 

45 The Tongue. 

55 The Skin. 
2 3 Sympathetic System. 
1 4 Structure. 
; Punctions. 



MANUAL OF PHYSIOLOGY. 



SCOPE AND DIVISIONS OF THE SCIENCE. 



Didactic Note. — In commencing the study of any science, 
the pupil should have a clear conception of the general character 
of the subject-matter, the divisions of the science, and its rela- 
tions to the other departments of human knowledge. With these 
facts well fixed in the mind, he has a frame-work on which to 
build his future acquisitions. A simple understanding of the 
nature of the subject is of much greater importance than the 
mere memorizing of technical terms. The teacher should en- 
courage the pupil to make his statements in his own language, 
and to illustrate them with examples from his own stock of 
knowledge. Be satisfied to build slowly. The terms given below 
should be taught incidentally throughout the study of the sub- 
ject — not as mere words, but as embodying the great generaliza- 
tions of the science. No attempt to outline this division has 
been made, since it is necessarily incomplete. 



i. Define Anatomy. 

Anatomy is the science of the structure of organized bodies. 

2. Define Physiology. 

Physiology is the science of the functions of organized bodies. 

3. Define Hygiene. 

Hygiene is the science of health. 

9 



I© //j ■'-, .;.' .;-' .- ; ;< ;■:.'.".- r- 



4. U liat does itthe farm Ftoyswlpgy nmvmirn^' wtmhtde? 

The term Physioi: r~ 
on the snbje: - - .._ : ~ - 7 _ . - _.i : H; , 

f. _T .tine fflaemum JLnc: 

body. 

6. Define Campari 

Z:—Z''-ri~ -"~ .-jz'-z:zz~ _r tt.t ::r:n.:.": sTt~~ : :' tr.'t 
:rri-r: 1- — ~~z '-■-- zht ir.f£~:: animals. 

- _T :_- ;.: ?l ."' 

?I_f : '. : r~ :: "-erieral :_n::~- ..f : stt~7 ::"tiif r_. ::r:>s:-: ; . : 
stri i.tt.rs : : ir::r: 

5. X . - 77 - : 

De^:;- : -.- r Ljlez - - 

7 _ - - . st • : -' _: t 

: 7~ "" 

PafhoJ :• ~ .: -- - :■ - - - ~ - - : - - : - - 

id. Define Bio:. 

Biolo^r : t nee of life. 

:: I-cf.K. .";;.";/':ri 

Osteology is "fbat division taff JSayaJkaikngy ndhicfa tocate<off tflbe 
bones. 

ia Dn, - ■ -:>..: r -j 

- -rhrolngj is that diviskm of I Bhy gn B a^^tdhiacih ttassite off tflhE 
joints. 

13. ZV~ ' 

Myology is that i - : r~ — _: '■-. '''-'-'- 

aBBsdes. 

: _ ' . 1 

Splanchnolog - .: : " :■' :•: 7 _~s :•:■>' ~ ttzzizi. trei-ii :»: 

,-it iiresti-'t arpar£.ras 

: • Z " 

.r_ir .:.:•—■ if tha: i.~r.. :z : :' 7 ::":■: .i-p v~iij:7t tr^ati :•:' zht 
cnrcmlatoTT apparatus. 

16. Define P^newmdlDf 

enmblogy is tfbatt dkisiniLtf P&^siulugy win: _ 
rtrrt _ri'..: r~ a: ^araras 



Cells. 1 1 

17. Define Ichorology. 

Ichorology is that division of Physiology which treats of the 
absorptive apparatus. 

18. Define Neurology. 

Neurology is that division of Physiology which treats of tie 
nervous apparatus. 



CELLS. 



Didactic Note. — The minute structure of the human body, 
which is revealed only by the microscope, is usually too much 
neglected in the teaching of elementary Physiology. This divi- 
sion of the subject presents no inherent difficulty, and possesses 
man}^ attractions for pupils. A clear idea of the cell is the prime 
essential. This any teacher can secure by a proper use of the 
blackboard. The amoeba is an excellent example of an individual 
cell. The nature of life and death as states of organized being 
should be carefully taught by numerous examples. 



SPECIAL OUTLINE. 

1 1 Cells. [See General Outline, page 7.] 

i 2 General description. 3 2 Classification. 

13 The ideal cell. i3 Immersed in a liquid. 

23 Form. 23 Imbedded in a solid. 

33 Size. 33 On a free surface. 

2 2 Structure. 4 2 The Amoeba. 

13 Cell-wall. 5 2 Cell development. 

23 Cell contents. 13 Growth. 

i4 Protoplasm. 23 Reproduction. 

2* Granules. i* Segmentation. 

3 4 Nucleus 2 4 Gemmation. 

4* Nucleolus. 6 2 Vitality. 



12 Manual of Physiology. 

19. What are cells? 

Cells are minute masses of simple formative material. They 
are the anatomical units of all organized matter. 

20. What is the ideal cell? 

The ideal cell is a small sac. the Cell-wall, enclosing a granu- 
lar mass of Protoplasm in which there is imbedded a vesicle, the 
Nucleus, containing a still smaller body, the Nucleolus. 

21. Tlliere are ideal cells found ? 

Ideal cells are found in the blood. -where they are called white 
corpuscl::. 

22. Do all cells conform to this perfect type? 

Cells frequently want the enclosing membrane ; and the little 
spot within the vesicle is sometimes not distinguishable. Some 
histologists apply the term cell to minute masses of structure- 
less matter in which no vesicle is discernible. 

23. What is a Nucleated Cell? 

A nucleated cell is one containing a small vesicle, or kernel 
which is the center of cell activity. 

24. JJTiat forms do cells assume ? 

The ideal cell is spherical in form ; but cells assume in differ- 
ent positions and under different circumstances a great variety 
of forms — cylindrical, conical, disk-like, etc. A peculiar form is 
the ciliated cell. 

25. Describe Ciliated Cells. 

Ciliated cells are usually conical in form, and are placed on 
the walls of cavities with their bases, from which cilia or hair- 
like bodies project, turned inward towards the cavity. 

26. What is the size of cells? 

Cells vary in size from T £ 7 to ^Vtf °f an i QCn i Q diameter, the 
average size being about y^r of an inch. 

27. What is the Cell-wall? 

The cell-wall is the enclosing membrane — frequently only the 
inseparable outer layer of the cell-body. 

2S. What is the Cell-body? 

The cell-body is the semi-fluid mass contained within the 
cell-walL 

29. What is Protoplasm ? 

Protoplasm is the simplest formative material of animal and 
vegetable structures, having no distinct tissues. It composes 
the cell-body. 



Cells. 13 

30. What are Granules ? 

Granules are minute specks floating in the protoplasm. 

31. What is the Nucleus? 

The nucleus is a small vesicle usually attached to the inner 
side of the cell-wall and containing a semi-transparent mass. 

32. What is the Nucleolus ? 

The nucleolus is a minute speck, or granule, within the 
nucleus. 

33. Into what three classes are cells divided with respect to 
locatio?i ? 

Cells are divided into three classes, as follows: 1st, those im- 
mersed in fluids ; 2nd, those imbedded in solids ; and 3rd, those 
on free surfaces. 

34. What cells belong to the first group ? 

The corpuscles of the blood and lymph belong to the first 
group, or class. 

35. What cells belong to the second group? 

Those found in bone, cartilage, and other connective tissues. 

36. What cells belong to the third group ? 

The epithelium cells of the skin and mucous membrane. 

37. What is the Amoeba ? 

The Amoeba is a microscopic animal consisting of a single 
cell. 

38. What vital properties does the Amceba possess? 

It possesses the powers of assimilation, reproduction, irrita- 
bility, and contractility. It can change its form at will, and can 
move about from place to place. 

' 39- What tivo processes are denoted by the term development, 
as applied to cells ? 

The growth of existing cells and the producing of new ones. 

40. How does a cell grow ? 

A cell grows by incorporating new material among its con- 
stituent molecules. This growth by interstitial deposit is called 
intussusception, as opposed to accretion, or formation by adding 
layers to the outside, as in the mineral world. 

41. By what two principal modes is the reproduction of cells 
accomplished? 

The reproduction of cells is accomplished principally by seg- 
mentation and gemmation. 



x 4 

_^ - a • - "/ ■ ■ _■ 

In Segmentation, the frames jt.___ ;on- 

:rd in its -:..-: tike in hour-...-- aid r. _:-...-- aefmates 
into two ::..: r^ch containing a part of the divided nu: 

| -. Describe : 

In Gemmation a bud, or little - -- - : first [ :rom the 

cell mass, and subsequently separates t 

44- Defi 

The term growth der rease in the size jf i structure 

without change in the nature of its fabric or in the : 
it discharge - 

_-. Hozv does the hum : 

The human "body grows by the multiplication of its . e 

46. WJiai is ~V:: ~ 

Vitality is the life force of 
which, controlling chemical and physical forces, gives form to or- 
ganized matter. A body is s . .~e when this force 
tive in it, and to die when this force :"rom it, 

_- _".;' : life as a cor . 

Life is that condition of organized being in which it is capable 
of performing all Ets _-:ural functions. 

_ : . Define death. 

Death is that condition of organized being in which it is in- 
capacitated for performing its various functions. Death m _ 
partial and gradual, organ after organ losing its power t : 1 : 
until total incapacity results. 



chemical elements and proximate 
principle; 



Didactic Note. — The nature of a chemical elem : be 

taught to those who have not studied ch -mple 

examples, as gold, ir : :anding of the I 

chemical compound and / 

the same wav. The extent to which the subdivision of organic 
proximate principles is carried should depend upon the gra 



Chemical Elements. 15 



the pupils ; but the teacher should, at least, carefully make the 
distinctiou between nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous principles. 



SPECIAL OUTLINE. 

2 1 Chemical Elements. [See General Outline, page 7.] 

i 2 Nature. 23 Organic. 

2 2 Number. 1 4 Nitrogenous. 

3 2 Enumeration. is Proteids. 

4 2 Combination. 25 Peptones. 

3 1 Proximate Principles. 3S Albuminoids. 

i 2 Nature. 45 Coloring matters. 

2 2 Classification. 2 4 Non-nitrogenous. 

is Inorganic. is Hydrocarbons, 

i* Water, etc. 25 Carbohydrates. 



49. What are Chemical Elements ? 

Chemical Elements are simple substances which are recog- 
nized by chemists as ultimate forms of matter. About seventy 
elements are now known. 

50. What Chemical Elements are found in the human body? 
The following sixteen elements are found in the human body: 

Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Sulphur, Phosphorus, 
Chlorine, Fluorine, Sodium, Potassium, Calcium, Magnesium, 
Silicon, Lithium, Iron, and Manganese. 

51. Do these elements exist in a free state in the body? 

The chemical elements exist in the various tissues of the 
human body in a combined state. A small amount of free oxy- 
gen is found in the blood; a small amount of nitrogen, in the 
lungs ; etc. 

52. What are Proximate Principles? 

The proximate principles of the human body are simple 
substances which cannot be separated into simpler components 
without the aid of chemical analysis. 

53. Into what two classes are proximate principles divided? 
The proximate principles of the body are divided into two 

great classes: Inorganic and Organic. 



16 nual of Pkysiolog 

-- _ Na me the most important inorga n ic proximate pr 

iter, CommcL Salt Potassium Chloride and Calcium Phos- 
phate. 

55. What is the quantity of water , 

Water constitutes about two-thirds, by weight, of the bod~ T 
and is found in all its tissue s 

561 Where is common salt {Sodium Chloride] found in the 
•::. ■:■'■: :■:.:}.-' 

_ : TTm on salt is found in all the tis s d : - : » the body. 
- In what tissues is Pota: 

Potassium Chloral- - is found in the blood, muscles, ner - - 
and in most of the fluids of the body. 

$L Where is C Phosphate found 

Calcium Phospha:- is found in all the tissues, but chief - 
the bones and teeth. It constitutes more than half of the ma- 
terial of the bones. 

. . -...-.... _. ; . - .. . - ; - - -. - ; irin- 

Nib ..enous and Non-nitrogenous principles. 

60. .' .itrogenous compour 
5-ir:e :".".: -r : : ~: — .::: "~ ::::::.::: :::r:^T:: :ht ::t "t:;- ;:> 

stable and are constantly changing. They give to tissues and 
£u:lr :lit:r -rital ^::i::::: ; 

61. Into what classes are they grouped? 

Proteids, Pepton s s &] Mniinoids and Coloring Matters. 

i: '"':.:: :: -: F-;:_ ids ." 

Proteids are very complex chemical compounds, composing 
the principal solids of the muscular, nervous and glandular 
tissues, and of the plasma of the blood. The white of an egg 
belongs to this cla^ s 

■ . ---- - : ~ _ " ; 

Peptones are compounds resulting from the action of the 
fluids of the alimentary canal upon prote: 

64- What are Albuminc 

. buminoids are compounds closely related to the proteids, 
but differing from them in P e dt that thev contain no sulphur. 
r. T" :: - -„..->-.--.. -.-,--■ - j-'_ : ri': r- Matters? 

They are a non-related class of substances, which give color 
to the fluids of the body. To this group belong Hcematin and 



Tissues. 17 

Hcemoglobine in the blood, and Bilirubin and Biliverdin in the 
bile. 

66. What are the Non-nitrogenous Compounds ? 

These substances are composed of Carbon, Hydrogen and 
Oxygen. They contain no Nitrogen, and are, therefore, more 
stable than the nitrogenous group. 

67. Into ivhat two classes are the non-nitrogenous prin- 
ciples divided? 

Hydrocarbons, or the fats of the body ; and Carbohydrates, 
or starch and various forms of sugar. 



TISSUES. 



Didactic Note. — No part of Physiology will better repay the 
effort of close study than the Tissues. Their beauty of structure, 
as revealed by the microscope and pictured in many school physi- 
ologies, can be shown in rapid blackboard sketches. Let no 
teacher plead inability to use the cra}/on in this way. It is not 
the work of an artist, but of a teacher ; and facility here as 
elsewhere is the result of practice. Get a bone from the butcher's 
shop, and saw it across to show bone structure ; burn it in the fire 
to destroy the animal matter ; and mascerate it in diluted sul- 
phuric acid to dissolve out the mineral matter. " Lean meat " 
from the same source will show the muscular tissues, etc. Remind 
the pupils constantly of facts already observed by them at their 
homes : as the breaking down of the structure of boiled beef into 
minute fibres, or fasciculi ; the separating of a piece of boiled 
tendon into slender, thread-like fibres ; the white, crackling areo- 
lar tissue seen immediately beneath the skin in butchering a 
beef; etc. 



1 8 Manual of Physiology. 



SPECIAL OUTLINE. 

4 1 Tissues. [See General Outline, page 7.] 

i 2 Differentiation. 1 4 Involuntary. 

2 2 Classification. . is Structure. 

13 Supporting. 25 Functions. 

1 4 Sclerous. 2 4 Voluntary. 

i5 Chemical Composition. is Structure. 

25 Microscopic Structure. 25 Functions. 

35 Ossification. 33 Storage : Adipose. 

2 4 Fibrous Connective. 1 4 Structure. 

i5 Inelastic. 2 4 Where found. 

2 s Blastic. 4 3 Conductive : Nervous. 

35 Areolar. 1 4 Cells. 

3 4 Cartilaginous. 2 4 Fibres, 

is Hyaline. is Structure. 

25 Elastic. 25 Kinds. 

35 Fibro-cartilaginous. i 6 White. 

23 Contractile : Muscular. 2 6 Gray. 



68. What are Tissues f 

Tissues are the simple organic structures composing the 
human bod}*. They are building materials, bearing the same 
relation to the body as a whole that the wood, paint, glass, slate, 
and nails do to the house. 

69. How are the different kinds of tissues formed? 

The various forms of tissue are developed from simple cells 
by a process known as the differentiation of the tissues, in which 
cells at first similar become by slight modifications gradually 
changed into forms fitted for special functions. 

70. Enumerate the tissues of the human body. 

Sclerous, Fibrous Connective, Cartilaginous, Muscular, Adi- 
pose, and Nervous. 

71. How are the "tissues classified? 

Various schemes of classification have been adopted by differ- 
ent writers. Perhaps the most satisfactory division is into four 
groups, as follows : Supporting, including the Sclerous, Fibrous 



Tissue*. 19 

Connective, and Cartilaginous ; Contractile, or Muscular ; Storage, 
or Adipose ; and Conductive, or Nervous. 

72. What is Sclerous tissue ? 

Sclerous tissue is a porous, mineral structure composing the 
bones and teeth. The word sclerous means hard. 

73. Give the chemical composition of bones. 

The following from Berzelius, as quoted in Gray's Anatomy. 
is reliable : 

Organic matter (Gelatin and blood-vessels), 33.30 

Inorganic, or earthy matter — 

Phosphate of Lime, ■ 51-04 

Carbonate of Lime, 11.30 

Fluoride of Calcium, 2.00 

Phosphate of Magnesia, 1.16 

Soda and Common Salt, 1.20 

100.00 

74. What are the two forms of sclerous tissue? 

Sclerous tissue is of two distinct varieties : Cancellous, a bony 
network of minute spiculae found in the irregular bones and in the 
enlarged ends of the long bones; and Compact, a denser tissue 
consisting of minute plates of bone arranged in what are called 
Haversian systems, and found in the shafts of long bones and in 
a hard surface layer of the irregular ones. 

75. Describe an Haversian System? 

An Haversian System consists of a central Haversian Canal 
surrounded by concentric layers of bony Lamellce, between which 
are rows of Lacunce joined together by radiating Canaliculi. 

76. What are Haversian Canals ? 

Haversian Canals are minute tubes, about z ^-$ of an inch in 
diameter, running through the substance of bones and containing 
nutrient vessels. The entrances to the larger ones from the sur- 
faces of bones and the medullary cavities are called Nutrient 
Foramina. 

77. What are Lamellce? 

Lamellae are little plates or scales of bone arranged in con- 
centric rings around the Haversian canals. 

78. What are Lacunae ? 

Lacunae are small, irregularly-shaped cavities between the 
Lamellae. 

79. What are Canaliculi? 

Canaliculi are minute tubes radiating from Haversian canals 
and joining the rings of lacunae into systems. 



20 Manual of Physiology. 



80. What are Bone Cells? 

Lacunae, with their contents, are called Bone Cells, or Bone 
Corpuscles. The cells which are centers of intramembranous 
ossification are called Osteoblasts. 

81. What are Ultimate Granules? 

Ultimate Granules are minute particles of mineral matter 
about -g-tfVff of an inch in diameter, out of which the bone struct- 
ure is built. 

82. What is Ossification ? 

Ossification is the formation of bone by the depositing of 
mineral matter in cartilaginous or membranous structures. 

83. What are the two kinds of ossification ? 
Intracartilaginous and Intramembranous. 

84. Describe Intracartilaginous Ossification. 

There are four distinct stages in the process of intracartilag- 
inous ossification, as follows : 1st, a center of ossif cation is formed 
by the enlarging and arranging in rows of the cartilage cellsT- 
2nd, calcareous matter is deposited ia the spaces between the 
cells ; 3rd, processes of blood-vessels and cells burrow into this 
substance from without ; and 4th, little plates of bone substance 
arrange themselves in concentric rings about these burrows, or 
tubes, and form Haversian systems. 

85. Describe Intramembranous Ossification ? 

In intramembranous ossification the center of ossification is 
a granular corpuscle, from which spiculse of bone substance radi- 
ate in all directions, much like the formation of ice on the surface 
of water. In other respects the process is similar to that in 
intracartilaginous ossification. 

86. What are Fibrous Connective Tissues? 

Fibrous Connective Tissues are a class of textures whose 
common function is to bind together and support the various 
organs of the body. 

87. Of what are these tissues composed ? 

The fibrous connective tissues are composed of a basement 
substance in which are imbedded cells, and through which run 
two kinds of fibres, elastic and inelastic. 

88. What are the three varieties of fibrous connective tissues? 
White Fibrous Tissue, Yellow Elastic Tissue, and Areolar 

Tissue. 

89. Describe White Fibrous Tissue. 

White Fibrous Tissue is composed almost wholly of inelastic 
fibres, is white in appearance, and is very strong. It constitutes 



Tissues. 2 1 

the ligaments for binding together the bones, the tendons for 
joining muscles to bones and other structures, and the investing 
membranes for the protection of various parts, as the coverings 
of bones and muscles. 

90. Describe Yellow Fibrous Connective Tissue. 

Yellow Fibrous Connective Tissue consists largely of yellow 
elastic fibres, which give it a yellowish color and render it elastic. 
It is found in the vocal cords, the inner coats of the arteries, etc. 

91. Describe Areolar Tissue. 

Areolar Tissue consists of open meshes of mingled elastic 
and inelastic fibres. It is found in nearly every part of the body, 
binding together and supporting the various organs. 

92. What are Basement Membranes ? 

Basement Membranes are a special form of connective tissue 
found in cell-walls, supporting membranes, etc. They are the 
simplest of all tissues. 

93. What is Cartilaginous Tissue ? 

Cartilaginous Tissue is a dense, tough substance found in the 
joints and elsewhere, and commonly called " gristle." 

94. Into what classes are cartilages divided? 

Cartilages are divided into three classes : Hyaline, Elastic, 
and Fibro-Cartilagc. 

95. Describe Hyaline Cartilage. 

Hyaline Cartilage is a pale, bluish-white structure, flexible 
and elastic, found in the joints, where it is called Articular Car- 
tilage, and at the juncture of the ribs and sternum, where it is 
called Costal Cartilage. The Temporary Cartilage, from which 
the bones are formed, is of this variety. 

96. Describe Elastic Cartilage. 

Elastic Cartilage is yellowish in appearance, and differs from 
the true, or hyaline cartilage in the presence of fibres of yellow 
elastic connective tissue interlacing through its structure. It 
is found in the external ear, the walls of the nose, the epiglottis, 
etc. 

97. Describe Fibro- Cartilage. 

Fibro-Cartilage consists of true cartilage substance with in- 
terlacing threads of white fibrous connective tissue. It is found 
in the mechanism of certain joints which are subject to frequent 
movement and violent concussion, as the knee, the wrist, etc. 

98. What is Muscular Tissue ? 

Muscular Tissue is a highly contractile texture of fibrous 
structure composing the muscles. 



22 Manual of Physiology. 



99. What are the two varieties of muscular fibres ? 
Involuntary and Voluntary. 

100. Describe the structure of Involuntary Muscular Fibres. 
Involuntary Muscular Fibres are spindle-shaped contractile 

fibres, or elongated cells, showing under the microscope a 
smooth, plain structure, hence called " unstriped muscular 
fibres." 

101. Where are involuntary, or unstriped muscular fibres 

found? 

Involuntary muscular fibres are found in the muscles of the 
walls of the viscera and other organs not under the immediate 
control of the will. 

102. Describe the structure of Voluntary Muscular Fibres. 
Voluntary or " Striped " Muscular Fibres are thread-like bodies 

about t ^q of an inch in diameter, marked by transverse bands, 
and each enclosed in a delicate sheath, called the Sarcolemma. 
According to some authorities, these fibres are composed of still 
finer threads, called Fibrillce. 

103. Where are voluntary muscular fibres found? 

Voluntary muscular fibres compose the muscles which are 
attached to the bones, and which are, therefore, used under the 
control of the will in the ordinary movements of the body. 

104. Describe the structure of a voluntary muscle. 

A voluntary muscle is composed of little bundles of striped 
fibres, called Fasciculi, bound together by a closely investing 
membrane called the Perimyssium. 

105. What is Muscle Juice ? 

Muscle Juice is a colorless fluid permeating the muscular 
structure. 

106. How do muscles contract ? 

Muscles contract by the shortening of their fibres. The fibre 
does not decrease in volume, but simply changes its form, be- 
coming shorter and thicker. 

107. What is Adipose Tissue ? 

Adipose Tissue consists of little vesicles containing fatty 
matter bound together by connective tissue. 

108. Where is adipose tissue found? 

Adipose tissue is found in almost every part of the body, dis- 
tributed through the meshes of areolar tissue. It is a store-house 
for heat-forming materials. 



Tissues. 



23 



109. What is Nervous Tissue? 

Nervous Tissue is the texture of the sensory apparatus of the 
oody, and is composed of cells interlaced with fibres and bound 
together by connective tissue. 

no. Where are Nerve Cells chiefly found? 

Nerve cells are collected in masses, intermingled with nbres, 
in the brain and other ganglionic centers, constituting the gray 
nervous substance. 

in. What are the two kinds of Nerve Fibres? 

Nerve Fibres are White, or Medullated, and Gray, or Non- 
medullated. 

112. Describe the structure of White Nerve Fibres. 

White Nerve Fibres consist of a central core, or Axis Cylin- 
der, imbedded in a fatty substance, called the White Substance 
of Schwann, and the whole surrounded by a delicate membrane 
called the Neurilemma. 

113. Describe the structure of Gray Nerve Fibres. 

Gray Nerve Fibres are bundles of minute, finely-striatc.: 
nbrillae, enclosed in a delicate sheath. 

114. Where are white nerve fores chiefly found? 

White nerve fibres constitute the white part of the brain and 
spinal cord and the greater part of the cerebro-spinal nerves. 

115. Where arc the gray nerve, fibres chiefly found? 

Gray nerve fibres compose the nerves of the sympathetic sys- 
tem, and are also found in the nerve centers and in some of the 
cerebro-spinal nerves. 



Frontal B ne. 



Parietal Bone. 



Cr'::t 



!>>wer Jaw. — 



Cervical Vertebrae. 



Humerus, 



T^wihar Vertebra 



lliuin. 
Ulna. 



C.:; is- 
Me:;;..:; - 



i _ :..::._ -.- 



Fr_.-: 



7 ':.:. 

JY: .:*. 




Temporal Bone, 



Clavicle. 



?/ Ilium. 



_ . Patella. 



Tarsus. 
y i : ^tarsaa 
Phalanges. 



Osseous System. 25 



OSSEOUS SYSTEM. 



Didactic Note. — Where teaching is done without the aid of 
an artificial human skeleton, as it is in most schools, the teacher 
must use such material as can be obtained, remembering the 
value of seeing and handling that concerning which we wish to 
know. Pupils, if encouraged to do so, will soon make a good 
collection of clean bones of animals, by the aid of which the 
forms, processes, depressions, etc., of bones can be delightfully 
taught. Blackboard drawings, more or less conventional, are an 
important means to the same end. A full outline of the human 
skeleton should be placed upon the board, first by the teacher and 
then by the pupils from memory, and drilled upon day after day. 
The lessons on the functions of bones, accidents, causes of de- 
formities, etc., are specially important. Refer constantly to what 
the pupils already know concerning themselves. 



SPECIAL OUTLINE. 

r» Osseous System. [See General Outline, page 7.] 

is Bones. 2? Short. 

i e Mechanical Structure. 37 Flat. 

1 7 External Examination. 47 Irregular. 

i 8 Eminences: Processes. 2$ Skeleton. 

19 Tuberosities, etc. i 6 Architecture of skeleton. 

2 8 Depressions. 2 6 Number of bones. 

19 Fossae, etc. 3 6 Adventitious bones. 

27 Transverse Section. 4 s Analysis of skeleton. 

i 8 Periosteum, etc. V Head. 

37 Longitudinal Section. i 8 Cranium. 

i 8 Shaft, etc. 19 Occipital, etc. 

2 6 Classification. 2 8 Face. 

17 Long. 19 Malar, etc. 



26 



Manual of Physiology 



-3 8 Ear. 

: Maleus, etc. 
2" Trunk. 

: Spinal Column. 

: : Cervical Vertebrae, etc. 

2- Ribs. 

is True, etc. 

3- Sternum. 

15 Manubrium, etc. 
4 8 Os Hyoides. 
5- Pelvis. 

19 Innominata, etc. 
3" Extremities. 35 

I s Upper. 4- : 

is Shoulder. 



i i: Scapula, etc. 
25 Arm : Humerus. 
35 Forearm. 

1 10 Radius, etc. 
45 Hand. 

: Carpus, etc. 
2 s Lower. 

15 Thigh : Femur. 
2- Leg. 

i :; Tibia, etc. 
35 Foot. 

: :: Tarsus, etc. 
Functions of bones. 
Hygiene. 



116. What is an Orga 

An rgan is a distinct part of the body, designed to perform 
a particular function, as the heart to propel the blood. 

117. What is the function of an organ ? 

The function of an organ is its use or office, as sight is the 
function of the eye. 

118. What is a Syste 

A System is an assemblage of organs, usually composed of 
the same tissues, and having similar or related functions. 

119. What is an Apparatus t 

An Apparatus is a collection of systems and organs accom- 
plishing together a common end. 

120. Into what two classes may the apparatuses of the : 
be diz'idi 

Apparatuses of Internal Mechanism and of External Rela- 
tions. 

121. What two apparatuses constitute the first class? 

The apparatuses of internal mechanism are the Motor and 
the Nutritive. 

122. What is the Motor Apparatus? 

The Motor Apparatus is a collection of systems having for 
their common end the various movements of the bodv. 



Osseous System. 27 

123. What three Systems compose the Motor Apparatus? 
Osseous, Muscular, and Articulatory. 

124. What is the Osseous System? 

The term Osseous System denotes collectively the entire 
bony structure of the body. 

125. What is a Bone? 

A Bone is one of the hard parts which compose the Skeleton, 
or frame-work of the body. 

126. In what three ways may the mechanical structure of 
bones be studied ? 

By External Examination, by Transverse Section, and by 
Longitudinal Section. 

127. What does an External Examination show ? 
Eminences and Depressions. 

128. Into what principal classes, with respect to form, are 
Eminences, or "Processes " as they are called, divided? 

Processes, when the elevations are broad, rough and uneven, 
are called Tuberosities ; when small and rough, Tubercles ; when 
sharp, slender and pointed, Spines ; and when narrow, rough 
ridges, Li?ies. 

129. Into what classes, with respect to form, are the depres- 
sions on the surfaces of bones divided ? 

When the depression has an entrance larger than the bottom, 
it is called a Fossce ; when it is a long, narrow cleft, it is called 
a Fissure ; when it is an indentation in the edge of a bone, it is 
called a Notch ; when it is a long cleft or channel wider than a 
fissure, it is called a Groove ; and when it is an opening pierc- 
ing through a bone, it is called a Foramen. 

130. Into what tivo classes, with respect to position, are emi- 
nences and depressions alike divided? 

Articular when near a joint, and Non-Articular when not near 
a joint. 

131. What does a transverse section of a long bone show ? 

A membranous covering, called the Periosteum ; a compact 
outer layer of bone tissue ; a more porous inner body ; and a cen- 
tral canal, containing a fatty substance, called the Medulla, or 
"marrow." 

132. What does a longitudinal section of a long bone show ? 

A hollow, cylindrical Shaft of dense bone tissue, with enlarged 
Extremities of more porous matter. 



28 Manual of Physiology. 

133. Why are the extremities of the long bones enlarged? 
To render them more spongy and yielding to sudden jars; to 

offer better articulatory surfaces ; and to afford more room for 
the attachment of muscles. 

134. What does a section of a bone of the cranium show ? 
Two compact laminae, or plates, called the Outer and Inner 

Tables, having between them a more porous bone structure, called 
the Diploic Tissue. 

135. Into what four classes are bones divided, with respect to 
form f 

Long, Short, Flat, and Irregular. 

136. Where are the Long Bones found? 

Long bones are found in the extremities, where they serve 
as levers in producing the various movements of the body. 

137. Where are Short Bones found? 

Short bones are found in the wrist and ankle, where strength 
and compactness with slight motion are required. 

138. Where are Flat Bones found? 

Flat bones are found where protecting walls for vital organs 
are necessary, as in the skull, and. where broad surfaces for mus- 
cular attachment are required, as in the shoulder-blade. 

139. Where are Irregular Bones found? 

Irregular bones are found where a variety of uses are to be 
subserved, as in the Vertebrae, where strength, protection, and 
large muscular attachment are all required. 

140. What is the Skeleton ? 

The Skeleton is the bony frame-work of the body. 

141. What other supporting frame-works has the human 
body ? 

Besides the Endoskeleton, or bony frame-work, the human 
body has two other supporting structures : the skin, called the 
Exoskeleton, and the connective tissue, called the Mezzoskeleton. 

142. What is an Artificial Skeleton ? 

An Artificial Skeleton is the rearticulated bones of the dis- 
sected body, joined together by wires and springs. 

143. Describe the architecture of the skeletoti. 

The human skeleton consists of a central axis, along which 
are found three enlargements, or protecting cavities, and from 
which branch two pairs of limbs. 



Osseous System. 



29 



144. How many bones are there in the human skeleton ? 

The skeleton is composed of 206 bones, including the 
bones of the ear and excluding various minor sessamoid bones. 

145. Why does the number of bones vary at different ages ? 
Several bones which in youth are separate become united by 

ossification in old age, as in the Sternum, the Sacrum, etc. 

146. What are Sessamoid Bones ? 

Sessamoid bones are small bones found near the joints. The 
Patellae are the largest and most important sessamoid bones. 

147. What are Wormian Bones ? 

Wormian bones are small bones frequently found in the 
sutures of the cranium. 

148. Into what three divisions are the bones of the articu- 
lated skeleton usually grouped? 

Bones of the Head, Trunk, and Extremities. 

149. What are the three divisions of the bones of the head, 
or skull? 

Cranium, Face, and Bars. 





BONE)S OF THE HEAD. 

A, Frontal. £, Parietal. C, Temporal. D, Sphenoid. E, Malar. F, Su- 
perior Maxillary. G, Inferior Maxillary. 77, Occipital. I, Nasal. 



150. Enumerate the bones of the Cranium? 
There are eight bones of the cranium : 1 Occipital, 2 Parietal, 
2 Temporal, 1 Frontal, 1 Sphenoid, and 1 Ethmoid. 



30 Manual of Physiology. 



151. Enumerate the bones of the Face. 

There are fourteen bones in the face : 2 Malar, 2 Superior 
Maxillary, 1 Inferior Maxillary, 2 Lachrymal, 2 Nasal, 1 Vomer, 2 
Turbinated, and 2 Palate. 

152. Enumerate the bones of the Ears. 

There are six bones in the ears, three in each: Maleus, Incus, 
and Stapes. 

153. How are the bones of the Trunk divided? 

The bones of the trunk are divided into Spinal Column, 
Ribs, Sternum, Os Hyoides, and Pelvis. 

154. What is the Spinal Column? 

The Spinal or Vertebral Column is the central axis of the 
body, and consists of twenty-four bones, or Vertebrce, excluding 
the Sacrum and Coccyx, which are sometimes reckoned as a part 
of it. 

155. Into what three classes are the Vertebrce divided? 

The twenty-four vertebrae are grouped as follows : seven Cer- 
vical, twelve Dorsal, and five I/unibar. 

156. What are the first two cervical vertebrce called? 

The first two cervical vertebrae have received special names, 
the first being called the Atlas, and the second, the Axis. 

157. Describe the mechanical structure of a vertebra. 

A vertebra consists of a short, thick cylindrical Body, from 
which branch backward two Pedicels uniting behind by two 
Lamince to form a Neural Arch. From this Neural Arch, or 
ring, project three prominent processes for the attachment of 
muscles, two laterally and one backwards. 

158. What is the Sacrum ? 

The Sacrum is a large, wedge-shaped bone, situated at the 
base of the spinal column, at the back part of the pelvic cavity 
between the Innominata. This bone, which is properly a contin- 
uation of the spinal column, consists in youth of five distinct 
vertebrae, which unite into a single bone later in life. 

159. What is the Coccyx ? 

The Coccyx is a small, curved prolongation of the Sacrum ; 
and like that bone, it consists in early life of distinct vertebrae, 
four in number. 

160. Why is the spinal column curved? 

Its curvature secures elasticity combined with strength, and 
tends to lessen the jarring of the brain. 



Osseous System. 31 

161. What other arrangement is found in the spinal column 
for the protection of the brain ? 

Pads of cartilage are placed between the separate vertebrae, 
thus deadening the shock, of running, jumping, etc. 

162. What are Ribs? 

The Ribs are twenty-four long, slender, curved bones form- 
ing the walls of the thorax. 

163. Into what two classes are the ribs divided? 
True and False. 

164. What are the True Ribs ? 

The first seven on each side are called True Ribs. Each is 
attached to the Sternum in front directly by its own separate 
cartilage. 

165. What are the False Ribs ? 

The last five on each side are called False Ribs. The first 
three of each group are attached to each other at their anterior 
extremities by cartilage, which also joins them collectively to the 
Sternum ; the last two, having no anterior attachment, are called 
Floating Ribs. 

166. What is the Sternum ? 

The Sternum is a flat bone situated in the median line in 
front of the thorax. It articulates with the collar bone and the 
ribs. 

167. Into what three parts is the Sternum divided? 

From its resemblance to an ancient sword, the three parts of 
the sternum have been called the Manubrium, or handle, the 
Gladiolus, or blade, and the Ensiform Appendix, or sword point. 

168. What is the Hyoid Bone? 

The Hyoid Bone, Os Hyoides, is a u-shaped bone situated 
at the base of the tongue, and having no articulation with the 
other bones of the skeleton. 

169. What are the I?inominata ? 

The Innominata are two large, irregular bones which with the 
Sacrum form the pelvic basin. 

170. Into what three parts is each Innominatum divisible? 

The Ilium, the Ischium, and the Pubes. These three divisions 
are separate bones in youth, becoming united into a single bone 
in middle life. 

171. What is the cup-like depression in the outer side of the 
Innominatum which receives the head of the Femur called? 

The Acetabulum, or vinegar cup. It is also called by anato- 
mists the Cotyloid Cavity. 



32 Manual of Physiology. 

172. What are the four divisions of the upper extremity? 
Shoulder, Arm, Forearm, and Hand. 

173. What two bones form the frame-work of the Shoulder? 

The Scapula, or " Shoulder Blade," and the Clavicle or " Collar 
Bone." 

174. Describe the Scapula. 

The Scapula is a large, flat, triangular bone, situated in the 
upper and back part of the thorax. It forms the principal sup- 
port for the arm. 

175. What two well marked processes project from the outer 
angle of the Scapula ? 

The Acromion and the Coracoid. The Acromion Process is 
the highest point of the Shoulder. 

176. What is the Glenoid Cavity? 

The Glenoid Cavity is the shallow socket into which the head 
of the Humerus is articulated. 

177. Describe the Clavicle. 

The Clavicle is a long bone, shaped like the stem of an Italic 
small/" It extends from the upper part of the Sternum outward 
and backward to the Acromion Process of the Scapula. 

17S. What is the Humerus? 

The Humerus is the bone of the arm, extending from the 
shoulder to the elbow. 

179. What are the tzvo bones in the Forearm called? 
Radius and Ulna. The radius is on the side next the thumb. 

180. What is the Olecranon Process ? 

The Olecranon Process is a large eminence situated at the 
upper extremity of the Ulna. It can be readily perceived at the 
back of the elbow. 

181. What is the " Crazy Bone"? 

The " Crazy Bone," or M Funny Bone," is not a bone, but a 
nerve, which when compressed against the bone at the elbow 
produces a prickling sensation in the third and fourth fingers. 

1S2. Into -what three groups are the bones of the Hand divided? 

Carpus, or bones of the wrist ; Metacarpus, or bones of the 
hand proper ; and Phalanges, or bones of the fingers. 

183. Enumerate the bones of the Carpus. 

There are eight bones of the Carpus, arranged in two rows, 
as follows : first row — Scaphoid, Semilunar, Cuneiform, and Pisi- 
form : second row — Trapezium, Trapezoid, Os Magnum, and Un- 
ciform. 



Osseous System. 33 



184. How many bones are there in the Metacarpus? 
Five, arranged in a single row in the palm of the hand. 

185. How many bones are there in the Phalanges ? 

There are fourteen bones in the Phalanges, arranged in three 
rows, the thumb having but two bones. 

186. What are the three divisions of the lower extremity. 
Thigh, Leg, and Foot. 

187. What is the bone of the thigh? 

The Femur, the longest bone of the body. 

188. What are the Trochanters ? 

The Trochanters are two prominent processes at the upper 
extremity of the Femur, designed for the attachment of the 
muscles that rotate the thigh. 

189. What are the two bones of the Leg ? 

Tibia and Fibula. The Tibia, commonly called the " Shin 
Bone," is the larger and stronger, and is situated in the front and 
inner part of the leg. 

190. What is the Patella ? 

The Patella, or " Knee Pan," is a large sessamoid bone lying 
in front of the knee joint, and designed to change the direction 
of the application of the force of certain muscles. 

191. What are the divisions of the bones of the Foot? 
Tarsus, Metatarsus, and Phalanges. 

192. Enumerate the bones of the Tarsus. 

The Tarsus, corresponding to the Carpus of the upper ex- 
tremity, is composed of* seven bones, as follows : Os Calcis, As- 
tragalus, Cuboid, Scaphoid, Internal Cuneiform, Middle Cunei- 
form, and External Cuneiform. 

193. What is the Os Calcis ? 

The Os Calcis is the large bone projecting backward to form 
the heel. 

194. How many bones are there in the Metatarsus ? 

There are five bones in the Metatarsus, arranged in a single 
row similar to the Metacarpus, and forming the arch of the 
instep. 

195. How many bones are there in the Phalanges of the foot? 
Fourteen, arranged similarly to those in the hand. 

196. What are the functions of the skeleton ? 

The skeleton, as a frame, gives form to the body ; it supports 



34 Manual of Physiology. 



the various organs in their positions ; it forms cavities for the 
protection of the vital organs ; and its bones serve as levers in 
producing motion. 

197. What are the functions of the skull? 

The skull is the brain-box in whose thick, strong walls are 
carefully packed the organs of hearing, seeing, smelling, and 
tasting. 

19S. What arc the functions of the spinal column ? 

The spinal column is the central axis for the support of the 
body, and has a strong, tubular cavity for the protection of the 
spinal cord. 

199. What are the functions of the ribs? 

The ribs, together with the spinal column and the sternum, 
form a strong, light cage for the protection of the heait and 
lungs, and, acting as levers, aid in respiration. 

200. What arc the functions of the Pelvis? 

The Pelvis is a broad, strong ring swung between the upper 
extremities of the femurs. It supports the body through the 
spinal column, serves for the attachment of the strong muscles 
of the trunk and lower extremities, and provides a cavity for the 
protection of some of the viscera. 

201. What are the functions of the bones of the extremities? 

The bones of the extremities act as levers in producing the 
great variety of movements for which the limbs are designed. 

202. Contrast the structure of the upper and lower extremi- 
ties, as determining their fitness for performing their special 
functions. 

The upper extremities are prehensile organs, and their me- 
chanical arrangement is such as to permit great freedom of 
movement ; the lower extremities support the weight of the 
bod}- and are required to make fewer and simpler movements, 
and are, therefore, strong and compact. This confc-ast, noticeable 
throughout the limbs, is specially marked in the foot and hand. 
The fingers have much greater freedom of movement than the 
toes, the thumb admitting of being brought opposite each finger, 
a thing not possible with the great toe, even in the uncrippled 
feet of savages. 

203. What is the breaking of a bone called ? 

A Fracture, which may be either a Simple Fracture, affecting 
only the bone, or a Compound Fracture, in which the surround- 
ing integuments and muscles are lacerated. 



Osseous System. 35 



204. How is a broken bone reunited? 

If the broken parts are brought properly together and kept 
in that condition, new bone matter will be rapidly built into the 
breach until complete union takes place. 

205. Why are the bones of aged persons more easily broken 
than those of children? 

In later life the proportion of mineral matter in the bones 
largely increases, rendering them more brittle and more difficult 
to heal when broken. 

206. Why should not children in school be kept sitting on seats 
so high that their feet are not supported? 

The bones of young children are so flexible on account of 
their cartilaginous state that the weight of their dangling feet 
will bend the thigh bones over the edge of the seat and produce 
deformity. 

207. How are "Bow-legs" produced? 

Bow-legs are commonly produced by causing infants to sup- 
port the weight of their bodies upon their limbs before their 
bones have hardened. 

208. What is "The Rickets"? 

The Rickets is a disease of the bones in which there is lack 
of mineral matter, and a consequent crookedness and distortion 
of the bodily frame. It is found in young children born of dis- 
eased parents in unhealthy neighborhoods. 

209. What is a Bone Felon ? 

A Bone Felon, or Whitlow, is an inflammatory tumor occur- 
ring in the fingers near the joints, between the periosteum and 
the bone. 



Anterior View of the Muscles of the Body. 

1, Frontal Bellies of the Occipito-Fron talis. 

2, Orbicularis Palpebrarum. 8, Levator Labii 
Superioris Alaeque Nasi. 4, Zygomaticus Mi- 
nor. 5, Zygomaticus Major. 6, Masseter. 7, 
Orbicularis Oris. 8, Depressor Labii Inferioris. 
9, Platysma-Myoides. 10, Deltoid. 11, Pecto- 
ralis Major. 12, Axillary portion of the Latis- 
6imus Dorsi. 13, Serratus 
Major Anticus. 14, Biceps 
Flexor Cubiti. 15, Anterior 
Portion of the Triceps Ex- 
tensor Cubiti. 16, Supinator 
Eadii Longus. 17, Pronator 
Badii Teres. 18, Extensor 




Carpi Kadialis Longior. 19, 
Extensor Ossis Metacarpi 
Pollicis. 20, Annular Liga- 
ment. 21, Palmar Fascia. 
22, Obliquus Externus Ab- 
dominis. 23, Linea Alba. 24, 
Tensor Vaginae Femoris. 25, 
Section of the Spermatic 
Cord. 26, Psoas Magnus- 
27, Adductor Longue. 23, 
Sartorius. 29, Eectus Fe- 
moris. 30, Vastus Exter- 
nus. 31, Vastus Internus. 
32, Tendon Patellae. 33, Gas- 
trocnemius. 34, Tibialis An- 
ticus. 35, Tibia. 36, Ten- 
dons of the Extensor Com- 
muais. 



Muscular System. 37 



MUSCULAR SYSTEM. 



Didactic Note. — In teaching the mechanical structure of 
muscles, the teacher must again resort to the butcher's shop for 
his materials. A judicious use of the "living model" is of the 
highest importance. The Deltoid muscle becomes a real exist- 
ence, instead of a mere name, to the boy or girl who has felt it 
on his or her own shoulder. Great discretion and tact, however, 
are necessary in such teaching. Topical outlines can be used to 
advantage in this division of the subject; but no effort must be 
made to teach a full outline of the muscles, such as is found in 
the larger Anatomies. A few important muscles thoroughly 
taught both as to location and functions should satisfy the most 
ambitious teacher. The grade of the class will determine the 
amount of time to be given to the study of contraction and mus- 
cular work. Topics in the hygiene of muscles will be found in 
abundance by the wide-awake teacher. 



SPECIAL OUTLINE. 

2 4 Muscular System. [See General Outline, page 7.] 

is General study of muscles. i 8 Abductors, etc. 

i 6 Structure. 4." As to control by the will. 

V Parts. i 8 Voluntary, etc. [tion. 

i 8 Belly, etc. y As to concurrence of ac- 

27 Coverings : Fascia. i 8 Congenerous, etc. 

37 Attachments. 3 6 Action. 

i 8 Tendons, etc. I 7 Muscular contraction. 

2 6 Classes. 27 Measure of work. [age. 

I 7 As to form. 37 Mechanical disadvant- 

i 8 Radiate, etc. 2$ Analysis of the system. 

27 As to position. I 6 Number of muscles. 

i 8 Superficial, etc. 2 6 Naming of muscles. 
37 As to direction of motion. 3 6 Grouping of muscles. 



38 Manual of Physiology. 



1" Of the head. I 8 Sartorius, etc. 

i 8 Occipito-frontalis, etc. y> Functions. 
27 Of the neck. [etc. i 6 Maintenance of postures. 

i 8 Sterno-cleido-mastoid, 2 6 Locomotion. 

3 7 Of the trunk. 3 5 Vital actions. 

i 8 Pectoralis major, etc. 4 5 Muscular Sense. 

4^ Of the upper extremity. 5 6 Expression of thought and 

i 8 Deltoid, etc. feeling. 

5" Of the lower extremity. 45 Hygiene. 



210. What is the Muscular System? 

The Muscular System is a collection of more than five hun- 
dred distinct contractile bodies, which in their proper action 
produce the great variety of movements belonging to the differ- 
ent parts of the body. 

211. What is a Muscle? 

A Muscle is a body of contractile tissue, constituting a sepa- 
rate motor organ with a distinct office. 

212. What are the parts of a muscle? 

Most muscles may be divided into the Belly, or thick, fleshy 
part, and the Extremities. 

213. What are Fascia? 

The Fasciae are strong, inelastic membranes, investing the 
muscles and binding their fasciculi firmly together. 

214. How are muscles attached to the bo?ies and integuments? 
From the central belly toward the extremities muscular fibres 

change gradually into fibres of white connective tissue consti- 
tuting bands for attachment to the bones and integuments. 

215. What is the origin of a muscle? 

The origin of a muscle is the fixed central attachment toward 
which it pulls. 

216. What is the insertion of a muscle? 

The insertion of a muscle is the outer movable point on 
which its action is exerted. 

217. What determines the application of the terms origin and 
insertion as applied to the points of attachment of muscles? 

These terms as applied to the attachments of most muscles 
are purely relative, the origin in one action becoming the inser- 



Muscular System. 39 

tion in another. In the description of muscles it is customary to 
denote by the term " origin " that extremity which is usually the 
more fixed. 

218. What are Aponeuroses? 

Aponeuroses are broad, flattened bands of white fibrous con- 
nective tissue joining muscles to bone and integuments. 

219. What are Tendons? 

Tendons are slender, cord-like bands, similar in structure and 
use to aponeuroses. 

220. Into what classes are muscles divided with respect to 
form ? 

Radiate, Peniform, Sphincter, Hollow, etc. 

221. Into what classes are muscles divided with respect to 
position ? 

Superficial and Deep-seated. 

222. Into what classes are muscles divided with respect to 
direction of motion ? 

Abductors and Adductors, Pronators and Supinators, Flexors 
and Extensors. 

223. Into what classes are muscles divided with respect to 
control by the will? 

Voluntary, Involuntary, and Mixed. 

224. Into what classes are muscles divided with respect to 
concurrence of action? 

Congenerous and Antagonistic. 

225. Describe the action of muscles. 

Muscles do their work by shortening themselves in the direc- 
tion of the longitudinal extension of their fibres, thus drawing 
more nearly together the parts to which they are attached. 

226. What time is required for muscular contraction ? 

The rapidity and precision of muscular contraction is one of 
the wonders of the human body. Many of the changes in the 
vocal organs in rapid speaking are accomplished in less than ■£§ of 
a second; and in the vocalization of an accomplished singer 
there is a beautiful exactness in the movements that is equally 
marvelous. 

227. What is the measure of the work done by a muscle? 

In determining the amount of work done by a muscle both 
the weight moved and the distance through which it is moved are 
considered. If a muscle by its contraction raises four pounds 



4-0 Manual of Physiology. 



through five feet against gravity it is said to do twenty " foot- 
pounds " of work. 

228. Upon what does muscular strength depend? 
Muscular strength depends upon a health}^ state of the body 

in general and upon judicious exercise. 

229. What is Fatigue? 

Fatigue is a state of physical exhaustion, resulting from vio- 
lent and protracted exercise, in which the various functions are 
performed with less vigor and promptness than usual. 

230. What is the immediate cause of fatigue ? 

Fatigue results from the disintegration, or breaking down, of 
muscular tissue more rapidly than it can be repaired by the 
various constructive agents. 

231. What is meant by the "mechanical disadvantage" at which 
muscles act ? 

On account of the oblique direction in which muscles com- 
monly pull, much of their force is lost. This mechanical disad- 
vantage, as it is called, results from the manner of insertion, and 
is very great in nearly all the muscles of the body. 

232. What is the design in arranging muscles so as to act at 
so great loss of available force ? 

The mechanical disadvantage, which is such as regards mere 
power only, results from a sacrifice of strength to rapidity, and of 
directness in the application of force to compactness of structure. 
Compare the Masseter muscle of the jaw, where strength alone 
is required, with the Biceps of the arm, where rapidity in move- 
ment of the hand is desired : the Masseter pulls at right angles, 
with but little lost force ; but the Biceps acts very obliquely upon 
the forearm as a lever of the third class, producing quickness of 
movement at a great loss of available force. 

233. By zuhat plan is this mechanical disadvantage partly 
overcome ? 

. The mechanical disadvantage is in part overcome by the en- 
largement of the joints, which causes the tendons to pull over the 
projections, and, consequently, renders the action of the muscle 
more direct. The Patella at the knee-joint is a beautiful con- 
trivance of this kind. Pulleys are also used to change the direc- 
tion of the application of a force, as in the annular ligaments at 
the w T rist and ankle, and in the Digastric muscle of the jaw. * 

234. How many muscles are there in the human body? 
There are 527 distinct muscles in the body, arranged in 261 

pairs and 5 single ones. 



Muscular System. 41 



235. What are atrophied muscles? 

Atrophied muscles are muscles wasted away from disease or 
disuse until they are no longer able to perform their functions. 
The three little muscles attached to the external ear, as if to move 
it like the ear of an animal, are rudimentary or atrophied by 
disuse. 

236. How are muscles named? 

Muscles are named from their locations, as Interspinals, etc. ; 
from their forms , as Rhomboideus, etc. ; from their attachments, 
as Sterno-cleido-mastoid, etc. ; from their use, as Diaphragm, etc. ; 
and from their directions, as Transversales, etc. 

237. How are muscles grouped in descj'iptive anatomy ? 
Muscles "are grouped for convenience of study in various 

ways; but the most convenient arrangement is with reference to 
location, as muscles of the head, neck, trunk, upper extremities 
and lower extremities. 

238. How is a muscle described? 

A muscle is commonly described by giving its location, form, 
attachments, and action. A shorter description simply tells where 
it is and what it does. 

239. Describe the Occipito-frontalis. 

The Occipito-frontalis is one of a pair of muscles that cover 
the entire crown from the back of the head to the eyebrows. It 
raises the eyebrows, wrinkles the forehead, and moves the scalp. 

240. Describe the Corrugator supercilii. 

The Corrugator supercilii is a small muscle at the inner end 
of the eyebrow. It draws the eyebrow inward and downward in 
frowning. 

241. Describe the Orbicularis palpebrarum. 

The Orbicularis palpebrarum is a sphincter muscle surround- 
ing the eye. It closes the lid, either voluntarily or involuntarily. 

242. Describe the Orbicularis oris. 

The Orbicularis oris is an eliptical sphincter muscle sur- 
rounding the mouth. It closes and puckers the mouth. 

243. Describe the Levator labii superioris alcsque nasi. 

The Levator labii superioris alcsque nasi is a slender muscle 
extending from the inner margin of the orbit of the eye to the 
nostril and the upper lip. It lifts the upper lip and dilates the 
nostril in expression of disgust. 

244. Describe the Temporal muscle. 

The Temporal muscle is a broad, radiating muscle situated on 



42 Manual of Physiology. 

the side of the head in front of and above the ear and attached 
below to the lower jaw. It is used in biting and chewing. 

245. Describe the ^f asset er. 

The Jfasseter is a short, thick muscle situated below the ear 
^: the angle of the lower jaw. It is used in chewing. 

246. Describe the Buccinator. 

The Buccinator is a broad, thin muscle situated in the cheek 
in front of the Jfasseter. It compresses the cheek to expel air 
forcibly in blowing. 

247. Describe the Zygomaticus major. 

The Zygomaticus major is a slender muscle extending from 
the Malar bone to the angle of the mouth. It is used in laughing:. 
24S. Describe the Sterno-cleido-mastoid. 

The Sterno-cleido-mastoid is a large, thick muscle extending 
obliquely upward and backward at the side of the neck, from the 
S:±mum and Clavicle in front to the mastoid process of the Tem- 
poral bone behind the ear. It bends the head forward and rotates 
it toward the opposite side. 

249. Describe the Trapezius. 

The Trapezius is a broad, triangular muscle which with its 
fellow covers the upper and back part of the neck and shoulders. 
It draws the head backward, or elevates the point of the shoulder. 

250. Describe the Latissimus dorsi. 

The Latissimus dorsi is a large, flat muscle extending from 
the lumbar and lower dorsal vertebrae obliquely upward and 
forward to the Humerus. It draws the arm downward and 
backward, turning it inward. 

251. Describe the Erector spines. 

The Erector spines is a large, muscular mass lying along the 
spinal column. It keeps the body erect and bends it backward. 

252. Describe the Pectoralis major. 

The Pectoralis major is a broad, thick, triangular muscle ex- 
tending from the inner end of the Clavicle and upperjart of the 
Sternum to the Humerus. It draws the arm downward and 
forward across the chest. 

253. Describe the Serratus magnus. 

The Serratus magnus is a broad, thin muscle situated at the 
side or the chest. It draws the Scapula forward and inward. 

254. Describe the Intercostals. 

The Intercostals are thin layers of muscles filling the spaces 
between the ribs. The external layer extends obliquely down- 



Muscular System. 43 



ward and forward, and raises the ribs ; the internal layer extends 
downward and backward, and depresses the ribs. 

255. Describe the Diaphragm. 

The Diaphragm is a thin, muscular wall separating the 
thorax from the abdomen. It is used in breathing. 

256. Describe the Deltoid. 

The Deltoid is a large, triangular muscle situated on the 
upper and outer part of the arm and shoulder. It raises the 
arm from the side. 

257. Describe the Biceps of the arm. 

The Biceps of the arm, or the Biceps flexor cubiti, is a long, 
thick, spindle-shaped muscle situated in the front of the arm. It 
arises by two heads from the Scapula and extends downward to 
the Radius. It bends the forearm upon the arm. 

258. Describe the Triceps. 

The Triceps is a large muscle situated on the back of the 
arm. It arises by three heads from the Scapula and upper portion 
of the Humerus and extends downward to the Olecranon process 
of the Ulna. It extends and straightens the forearm upon the 
arm. 

259. Describe the Pronator radii terres. 

The Pronator is a small muscle extending obliquely across 
the arm below the elbow. It turns the Palm of the hand down. 

260. Describe the Supinator longus. 

The Supinator is a long muscle extending from the lower 
end of the Humerus along the Radial side of the arm to the 
Radius at the wrist. It turns the palm of the hand up. 

261. What arc the muscles which are used in closing and 
opening the hand. 

The muscles used in closing and opening the hand are called 
Flexor and Extensor digitorum. 

262. Describe the Gluteus maximus. 

The Gluteus maximus is a thick mass of coarse, muscular 
tissue extending from the Ilium obliquely downward and outward 
to the outer side of the Femur. It aids in keeping the body erect 
and rotates the thigh outward. 

263. Describe the Sartorius. 

The Sartorius, or "Tailor's Muscle," is the longest muscle of 
the body, extending obliquely downward and inward across the 
front of the thigh from the Ilium to the Tibia. It bends the leg 
upon the thigh and the thigh upon the body, rotating the thigh 
outward. 



44 Manual of Physiology 



264. Describe the Adductor muscles. 

The Adductors are three large muscles extending from the 
pubic region of the pelvis to the inner side of the Femur. They 
draw the thigh inward with great force. 

265. Describe the Rectus femor is. 

The Rectus femor is is situated along the front of the thigh, 
extending from the Pelvis to the Patella. It aids in supporting 
the body. 

266. Describe the Gastrocnemius. 

The Gastrocnemius is a large muscle constituting the greater 
part of the calf of the leg, and extending from the lower end of 
the Femur to the heel. It is used in walking. 

267. Describe the Soleus. 

The Soleus is a broad, fiat muscle situated beneath the Gas- 
trochnemius and extending from the upper extremities of the 
Tibia and Fibula to the heel. It is used in walking, and when 
the body is erect prevents it from falling forward. 

268. Describe the Tendo Achilles. 

The Tendo Achilles is the common tendon of the Gastroc- 
nemius and Soleus forming their attachment to the Os Calcis. It 
is about six inches in length, and is the thickest and strongest 
tendon of the body. 

269. What muscles are brought into use in standing erect? 

It requires the action of many muscles to maintain the body 
in an erect position, chiefly the extensor muscles of the lower 
limbs and those that support the head and spine. 

270. What muscles are used in walking? 

Walking is accomplished by a succession of complicated move- 
ments of the flexor and extensor muscles of the legs.' 

271. How do we leap? 

In leaping the whole body is raised from the ground by the 
sudden and forcible extension of the lower limbs. In a long leap 
a preparatory crouching attitude is assumed by flexing the limbs. 

272. How is running accomplished? 

Running is a combination of rapid walking and leaping. 
Quick steps are taken, and at the same time the body is thrown 
forward by a succession of low, one-legged leaps. In running 
there is an instant between the leaps when both feet are off the 
ground at the same time. 

273. How are the " vital actions " maintained? 

Vital actions are the work of the involuntary muscles of the 
heart, walls of the intestines, etc. The processes of circulation. 



Muscular System. 45 



digestion and respiration are maintained by these muscles during 
the whole period of life without control by the will. 

274. What is the "Muscular Sense" ? 

The term " Muscular Sense " denotes the faculty or capacity 
of determining by pressure and resistance the weight, texture, 
etc., of substances and the equipoise of the body. Grace of move- 
ment in dancing and skating are the result of the cultivation of 
this faculty. 

275. How are thought and feeling expressed? 

The thoughts and emotions of the mind are expressed entirely 
by muscular contraction. The muscles of the respiratory and 
vocal organs produce voice with its various intonations and in- 
flections ; the muscles of the hand produce the visible language 
of writing and drawing; and the muscles of the face express all 
shades of thought and feeling. 

276. How is Hiccough produced? 

Hiccough is produced by a sudden contraction of the dia- 
phragm, which causes a rapid and forcible inhalation through 
the partially closed opening of the larynx. 

277. What are Convulsions ? 

Convulsions are violent, involuntary contractions of those 
muscles that are usually controlled by the will. When the con- 
tractions are less violent, chronic, and marked by twitching of the 
muscles of the face and extremities, the disease is called " St. 
Vitus's Dance." 

278. What is "Locked-Jaw " ? 

" Locked-Jaw " is a permanent contraction of the muscles, 
producing rigidity of the body and stiffening of the jaw. 

279. What is Rheumatism ? 

Rheumatism is a shifting inflammatory affection of the mus- 
cles and joints. It is characterized by acute or burning pain 
with swelling of the affected part. 

280. What is Paralysis ? 

Paralysis is a cessation of muscular activity resulting from 
a diseased state of the nervous apparatus. It may be either tem- 
porary or permanent ; and, if permanent, it is accompanied by a 
wasting away of the affected muscles through disuse. 



46 Manual of Physiology - 



ARTICULATOR' "I 



Didactic Note — The gener^. \ ie and principal dae 

of joints are ea^_ ~ sti am ia She 

: re lading note* ;Lh younger children fhr is 7 : — __. : : - . E 

to drop the scientific terminoloz 3m± E _ :_. . - 7 

7-_red for Gingl - -_i h :vnik&flBe given 

to dc:,i: £be :i:::mon of :._ . •.- :/' _. T_r psciffisr 

locations ani &ru :~. 

SPECIAL ! ' . I L E 

- stem _^t -:i::_. . ntritif: . 1. : 
: '■ Sfcri - r._re. : I 

Of Immovable Join: •-.■__ 

: ; :' 1 3 - : bik " : h A3 ir - ■ - 

; 3a* - f : :::. :n. J I W 

: --;._.:'._.: -~ en 

: r ::.n ; . -..; gmlai rr 

:--•_:-- ! ■ . 

Iromphc' : _ 7 

. I _.::...: _ Hygiene. 

: Aa -.._rodia. 



2S1. Wliai is ess .- 

y nnion of two or ■ - e HesBcdOd 
7 _ 7 7 ::_ 7 - - 7 warded af 

tih " arti eolation,''' and 1 g a movable antiacne 

lation only. 
. 2 Dcscr 

In immovable articnlc" lose 

cant- : ~ted anlj 1 s l & fibrons membrane. 

; ;-,. Dcsn- . 

In in oval '.-. .lations the he 1 

tfbeir enlarged ends heing covers gs ■ 

stroma § am -raonnJed "by a shod 

-_drical sack which secrete* gating £ "_id. 



Articulator j/ . System. 47 



284. What is Articular Cartilage ? 

Articular Cartilage is that which covers the opposed ends of 
bones in articulations. 

285. What are Ligaments? 

Ligaments are strong bands of fibrous tissue which bind 
together the ends of bones in articulations. 

286. What is Synovial Membrane ? 

Synovial Membrane is a delicate membrane surrounding the 
articulations and secreting the lubricating fluid. 

287. What are Synovial Burses ? 

Synovial Bursse are small membranous sacs situated at the 
articulations and secreting an oily fluid. 

288. What is Synovia? 

Synovia, or Synovial Fluid, is a transparent yellowish fluid 
like the white of an egg, slightly salt to the taste. 

289. Into what three classes are articulations divided? 
Synarthrosis, or immovable ; Diarthrosis, or movable ; and 

Amphiarthrosis, or mixed. 

290. What are Synarthrosis articulations? 

Synarthrosis articulations are those in which the bones are 
so closely joined as not to admit of aiiy"appreciable motion. 

291. What are the three varieties of Synarthrosis articula- 
tions ? 

Sutura, Schindylesis, and Gomphosis. 

292. What are Sutura ? 

Sutura are seams between closely joined bones, in which the 
edges are roughened and interlocked. When the edges are dove- 
tailed together, the articulation is called a true suture ; but when 
the edges are merely roughened, it is called a false suture. Various 
forms of sutures are found in the articulations of the bones of the 
skull and face. 

293. What are Schindylesis articulations? 

Schindylesis articulations are formed by inserting the thin 
edge of one bone in a groove in the edge of another, as in the 
articulation of the Sphenoid and Kthmoid. 

294. What are Gomphosis articulations ? 

Gomphosis articulations are formed by inserting a conical 
point into a socket, as the articulation of the teeth with the jaw. 

295. What are Diarthrosis articulations ? 

Diarthrosis articulations are joints admitting of considerable 
movement. 



48 Manual of Physiology. 



296. What are the three varieties of Diarthrosis articulations? 
Arthrodia, Enarthrosis, and Ginglymus joints. Other varieties 

are given by anatomists ; but these are the most important. 

297. What are Arthrodia ? 

Arthrodia are joints formed by the opposition of plane surfaces 
and admitting a gliding movement, as in the wrist and ankle. 

298. What are Enarthrosis joints? 

Enarthrosis, or Ball-and-socket joints are formed by the recep- 
tion of a globular head into a cup-like cavity, as in the hip and 
shoulder. 

299. What are Ginglymus joints? 

Ginglymus, or Hinge joints are those that admit of motion in 
only two directions, as in the elbow and knee. 

300. What are Amphiarthrosis articulations ? 

Am phi arthrosis articulations are those in which the bones 
are joined by cartilage, and which admit of slight movement in 
all directions, as between the vertebrae. 

301. What four kinds of movements have joints? 

Gliding movement, Angular movement, Circumduction, and 
Rotation. 

302. Describe the Gliding movement. 

In the Gliding movement the surface of one bone slides over 
the surface of another without any angular or rota ton.* movement, 
as in the carpal and tarsal bones. 

303. Describe the Angular movemeiit. 

The Angular movement is produced by the flexion and ex- 
tension of one bone upon another, as in the hinge joints. 

304. Describe Circumduction. 

Circumduction is the movement of a long bone about one of 
its extremities as the apex of a cone, as in the shoulder and hip 
joints. 

305. Describe Rotation. 

Rotation is the turning of a bone upon its own axis, as the 
Atlas around the Odontoid process of the Axis. 

306. Describe the "long /bint " made by the bones of the fore- 
arm. 

The hand is joined principally to the Radius, while the arm 
is joined chiefly to the Ulna ; therefore, by the articulation of 
these two bones at their extremities, a joint is formed which may 
be considered to extend from the elbow to the wrist. 



Articulator} 1 System. 49 



307. What is a Dislocation ? 

A Dislocation is the displacement of a bone at a joint so as 
to partly or wholly destroy the articnlation. Dislocated bones 
are said to be " out of joint." 

308. What is a Sprain ? 

A Sprain is an injury of the ligaments of a joint, produced 
by violent twisting or straining. Sprains are very painful and 
heal slowly. 



5° 



Manual of Physiology. 




THE ALMENTAE.Y CA^AI*. 



3sopha|rus. 16, Stomach, 17, Splenic end of stomac. -^c 

er^of^maclT : - l^er curvature of stomach. 2 o, Greater curvatnre of 
stomach. 31. Cardiac orifice «. I .:ric orifice. 25, Duodenum 2 GaU- 

5 Vermiform ap P , ** colon. 43- Transverse colon. 4,, 

I^escendiBg Color -, "' tectum. 



Digestive System. 



5i 



DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 



Didactic Note. — Teach by outline and by the use of black- 
board drawings, the division, location, and form of the digestive 
apparatus. Fix in the mind by repeated drills the successive 
steps in the digestive process. The classification of foods should 
be brought within the comprehension of the pupils. Simplicity 
should not be sacrificed to logical exactness. Let the lessons on 
eating and drinking be as practical as they can be made, and re- 
peated from time to time until they are thoroughly understood 
and appreciated. The teacher should carefully observe that no 
pet theories of his own are made unduly prominent. 



SPECIAL OUTLINE. 



1 4 Digestive System. [See General Outline, page 8.] 



1 s Apparatus. 

i 6 Alimentary Canal. 

V General description. 
27 Divisions. 

i 8 Mouth. 
2 8 Pharynx. 
3 8 Oesophagus. 
4 8 Stomach. 
5 8 Intestines. 
19 Small. 
29 Large. 
2 6 Accessory Glands. 

V Salivary Glands. 
27 Liver. 

37 Pancreas. 
3 6 Supporting Membrane. 
25 Foods. 

i 6 General discussion. 



17 Essential characteristics. 
27 Variety necessary. 
37 Alimentary principles. 
47 Cooking. 
57 Time of digestion. 
67 Cured foods. 
2 6 Classification. 
V Foods proper. 
i 8 Organic. 
19 Animal. 

i 10 Nitrogenous. 
2 10 Non-nitrogenous. 
29 Vegetable. 
i 10 Nitrogenous. 
2 10 Non-nitrogenous. 
2 8 Inorganic. 
19 Solids. 
29 Liquids. 



: ' Auxiliary Foods. ;- : 7 e ; : :; : ; , 

r* Stimulants : Masticat 

- d imients ; I eghrtiti : n 

: Saline : Ckymification. 

-' Acid _ : _ _ 7::.:ion. 

;• Pmagent. _ : H-~riz 



7 - Nutritive Apparatus is a :71ection of ich 

for ~.'-r it joint function ~j.- maintenance and development 
: :" the t : 

-:: ~ " - " : - - tusf 

Digestive Absorptive Circulatory Re^iratorv and Bx- 
:: el : r 

Thr 7 gestive System - soHectJ : :~ :r^ pre- 

pare the the nourishment : iy. 

:: o 'the 

::■. 
Alimentary- 7 an al an 1 Accesso ry jlan 
3 : • Des A eniary C 

7 fa e -7: m e i t ary I a n membranous tnbe, 

about thirty iee: ink Ktrading es of coils and aon- 

voluti; ns from the month U the ted 

--:_ * . Alimentary Can al 

rhc Alimentary [!anal aonsists ::" four ::'.:-: w layers se- 
al areolar and mucous !The serous : at .-■-.. 
in :_r irpper portioi 

: : --"""■ _ mi? 

Mouth 7 - macrj Smal h r :ine,and 

Large IntestJ 

7 

The Mouth ar Boc - shaped cav- 

itv at the commencement ::" the Attn 
in 6 : s, on the sides by t" :_r 

ek y a membranous floor exfa 
Infer; w II axil] ir; to the nd behind by 

- tPal _7 7i_ces. 



Digestive System. 53 



317. What is the capacity of the mouth ? 

The mouth when fully open will contain about a half pint ; 
when closed, the cavity is entirely filled by the tongue. 

31S. What is the Palate? 

The Palate is the roof of the mouth. It consists of two parts : 
the Hard Palate in front, and the Soft Palate behind. 

319. What is the Uvula ? 

The Uvula is a pendent, conical process of the soft palate, 
plainly visible in the back part of the mouth. 

320. What are the Tonsils? 

The Tonsils are two small glandular bodies, situated in the 
back part of the mouth on either side of the opening into the 
Pharynx. 

321. What are the Fauces ? 

The term Fauces, or more properly the "Isthmus of the 
Fauces," denotes the opening between the mouth and the 
pharynx. 

322. What is the Pharynx? 

The Pharynx is that portion of the Alimentary Canal which 
is situated immediately behind the mouth and nose. It is about 
four and a half inches long and from one to two inches in diam- 
eter. 

323. What seven openings are in the walls of the Pharynx ? 
Two to the Nostrils, two to the Eustachian Tubes, one to the 

Mouth, one to the Larynx, and one to the Oesophagus 

324. What is the CEsophagus? 

The (Esophagus is a tube about nine inches in length, ex- 
tending from the pharynx to the stomach. 

325. Describe the structure of the CEsophagus ? 

The CEsophagus consists of three coats : an outer muscular, 
middle areolar, and inner mucous. The muscular coat is com- 
posed of two layers of fibres ; the outer arranged longitudinally 
and the inner transversely. 

326. Describe the Stomach. 

The Stomach is a large, pear-shaped expansion of the ali- 
mentary canal, situated on the left side, back of the lower ribs 
and beneath the diaphragm. It is about twelve inches in length k 
extending across- the median line, four inches in width, and has a 
capacity of about a quart 



54 Manual of Physiology. 

327. Of what are the walls of the stomach composed? 

The walls of the stomach are composed of four coats : se- 
rous, muscular, areolar, and mucous. 

328. Describe the muscular coat of the stomach. 

The muscular coat of the stomach is composed of three lay- 
ers of fibres. Those of the external layer extend longitudinally 
from the cardiac to the pyloric orifice ; those of the middle, trans- 
versely around the stomach ; and those of the inner, obliquely 
around the cardiac end. 

329. Describe the mucous coat of the stomach. 

The mucous coat of the stomach is an inelastic pink mem- 
brane having a peculiar honey-combed appearance produced by 
minute, shallow pits. It is large enough to admit of great dis- 
tention of the stomach, and is, therefore, folded and wrinkled 
when the stomach is empty. 

330. What are Gastric Follicles? 

Gastric Follicles are minute glands opening into the bottoms 
of the shallow pits in the mucous coat of the stomach. One 
variety of these follicles is called Peptic Glands. 

331. What is Gastric Juice ? 

Gastric Juice is a thin, colorless liquid, secreted by the gastric 
follicles. 

332. What are the openings into the stomach ? 

The Cardiac Orifice, through which the food enters from the 
CEsophagus ; and the Pyloric Orifice, through which it passes out 
to the small intestine. 

333. What is the Pylorus ? 

The Pylorus, or Pyloric Valve, is a sphincter muscle formed of 
fibres of the middle layer of the muscular coat of the stomach. 
By its contraction the mucous coat is thrown into projecting 
folds, which prevent the exit of food during gastric digestion. 

334. What is the Small Intestine ? 

The Small Intestine is a tortuous tube about twenty feet in 
length, extending from the stomach to the Large Intestine. It 
is divided arbitrarily by anatomists into three parts : the first, ten 
inches in length, is called the Duodenum; the second, about 
seven feet in length, is called the Jejunem ; and the third, about 
twelve feet in length, is called the Ileum. 

335. Describe the structure of the Small Intestine. 

The Small Intestine consists of four coats, similar to those 
of the stomach, except that the muscular coat has but two layers 
of fibres and the mucous coat has a somewhat different structure. 



Digestive System. 55 



336. Describe the structure of the mucous coat of the small 
intestine. 

The mucous coat of the small intestine is a soft, pink, highly 
vascular structure, arranged in permanent transverse folds, and 
covered with minute processes called Villi, closely packed to- 
gether like " pile " on velvet. In addition to the villi, numerous 
small glands open upon its surface. 

337. What are the functions of the villi? 

The villi project the mouths of the lacteals and blood vessels 
into the intestinal tube. 

338. What important glands discharge their secretions into 
the Duodenum ? 

The Liver and the Pancreas. 

339. What is the Large Intestine ? 

The Large Intestine is the last division of the alimentary 
canal. It is about five feet long and from one and a half to two 
and a half inches in diameter. 

340. What are the divisions of the large intestine ? 

The large intestine is divided into Caecum, Colon, and Rectum. 

341. Describe the Ccecum. 

The Caecum is a large pouch at the commencement of the 
large intestine. It is really a projection of the Colon beyond the 
entrance of the Ileum. 

342. What is the Ileo-Cczcal Valve? 

The Ileo-Caecal Valve is formed by two semi-lunar folds of 
mucous membrane at the entrance into the large intestine. It 
allows free passage toward the Caecum, but prevents regurgitation. 

343. What is the Vermiform Appendix ? 

The Vermiform Appendix is a small, coiled tube, about four 
inches long and as thick as a common lead pencil, joined to the 
Caecum. It is thought to be a rudimentary prolongation of the 
Caecum ; but its use is not well understood. 

344. Describe the Colon. 

The Colon is a portion of the large intestine, about five feet 
in length, extending from the Caecum to the Rectum. It presents 
for external examination a knotted, puckered appearance, caused 
by bands of muscular fibre shorter than the rest of the tube. 

345. What are the four divisions of the Colon? 

The Ascending Colon, extending from the Caecum up along 
the right side of the abdominal cavity ; the Transverse Colon, 
crossing from right to left below the stomach ; the Descending 



56 Manual of Physiology. 

Colon, extending downward along the left side of the cavity ; and 
the Sigmoid Flexure, an s-shaped curve where the Colon turns 
back upon itself and passes to the median line to join the Rectum. 

346. Describe the structure of the coats of the large intestine. 

The coats of the large intestine are the same as those of the 
small. The muscular coat has its external layer of fibres arranged 
in three longitudinal bands so attached as to pucker the tube; 
and the mucous coat has no villi, but is covered by numerous 
minute glands. 

347. What is the Rectum ? 

The Rectum is the last division of the large intestine. It is 
about eight inches in length, and is nearly straight. 

348. What are Glands ? 

Glands are organs whose functions are secretion, elaboration, 
and excretion. The ideal gland is a cellular mass separated into 
small lobes and pierced by minute tubes which unite into larger 
ducts through which the elaborated material is carried to the 
place -oi deposit. 

349. What are the Accessory Glands of the digestive appa- 
ratus ? 

The principal glands of the digestive system are the Salivary 
Glands, the Liver, and the Pancreas. Besides these there are 
numerous minute simple bodies of similar function, as the Mu- 
cous Glands of the entire alimentary canal, the Gastric Follicles 
of the stomach, etc. 

350. What are the Salivary Glands ? 

The Salivary Glands are minute glands imbedded in the 
walls of the buccal cavity. Their function is the secretion of 
saliva. 

.351. What are the three pairs of salivary glands called? 

The three pairs of salivary glands are known as the Parotid, 
situated below and in front of the ears ; the Submaxillary, in the 
floor of the mouth near the angles of the lower jaw ; and the 
Sublingual, in the floor of the mouth farther forward than the 
Submaxillary. 

352. Through zvhat passages do the secretions of the salivary 
glands reach the mouth ? 

The secretion from the Parotid Glands flows to the mouth 
through two tubes known as Steno's Ducts, about two and a half 
inches long, discharging through easily-discerned openings in 
the cheeks opposite the second molar teeth of the upper jaw ; 
that from the Submaxillary flows through two tubes about two 
inches in length, known as Wharton's Ducts, and discharge*' 



Digestive System. 57 



under the tip of the tongue ; and that from the Sublingual flows 
through from eight to twenty small ducts from each gland, and 
discharges under the tip of the tongue. 

353. What is Saliva ? 

Saliva is a thin, watery fluid secreted by the Salivary Glands. 
It is slightly viscid, and mingled with mucous as obtained in the 
spittle, is frothy. 

354. What is the Liver ? 

The Liver is a large, reddish-brown gland, situated in the 
abdominal cavity immediately beneath the diaphragm, at the 
right of and overlying a portion of the stomach. It is the largest 
gland of the body, and weighs from three to four pounds. 

355. What are the two principal divisions of the liver ? 

The liver is partially divided by a deep fissure into two bod- 
ies, called the Right and Left Lobes. 

356. Describe the structure of the liver ? 

The liver has a soft, pliable texture, divided into minute 
masses, or Lobules, which are composed of Hepatic Cells. 

357. What are Bile Capillaries ? 

Bile Capillaries are minute tubes extending among the 
hepatic cells, and having for their function the collecting of bile. 

358. What is the Gall Bladder? 

The Gall Bladder is a pear-shaped sac about four inches long 
and one inch in diameter, situated in immediate contact with the 
under surface of the liver. It is a reservoir for the bile when di- 
gestion is not in progress. 

359. What -are the Biliary Ducts? 

The Biliary Ducts are, 1st, the Cystic, which conveys the bile 
from the bile capillaries to the gall bladder ; 2nd, the Hepatic, 
which conveys the bile from the bile capillaries directly to the 
Common Bile Duct ; and 3rd, the Common Bile Duct, which is 
formed by the junction of the Hepatic and Cystic ducts, and 
which discharges the bile into the Duodenum. 

360. What is the Bile ? 

The Bile is a yellowish-green, viscid fluid secreted by the 
liver. It is extremely bitter and slightly alkaline to the taste. 

361. What is the Pancreas? 

The Pancreas is a long, tongue-shaped gland of yellowish 
color, situated behind the stomach. 



58 Manual of Physiology. 



362. What is the Pancreatic Duct? 

The Pancreatic Duct is a small tube traversing the entire 
length of the Pancreas and conveying its secretion to the intes- 
tines. It usually has a mouth in common with the bile duct. 

363. Describe the Pa?icreatic Juice. 

The Pancreatic Juice is a viscid, alkaline fluid, slightly milky 
in appearance. 

364. What is the Peritoneum ? 

The Peritoneum is a serous membrane lining the abdominal 
cavity, and, deflected from its wall, investing and supporting the 
viscera. 

365. What ligaments are formed by folds of the peritoneum ? 
Those which support the liver, spleen, and other visceral 

organs. 

366. What is the Omentum ? 

The Omentum, or " Caul," is a large, loose, double fold of the 
peritoneum, which protects and supports the viscera. 

367. What is the Mesentery ? 

The Mesentery is a broad fold of the peritoneum, investing 
and supporting the small intestine. 

368. What are Foods ? 

Foods are substances which, being digested in the body, fur- 
nish the proper materials for its development and the main- 
tenance of its vital functions. 

369. What are the essential characteristics of foods t 

A substance in order to be classed as a food must either con- 
tain elements of which the body is composed, or fuel for main- 
taining its temperature ; it must be digestible, i. e., capable of 
being absorbed from the alimentary canal ; and it must contain 
no substance injurious to the structure or activity of any organ. 

370. Why is variety necessary in food ? 

Different kinds of food are necessary at each meal in order 
to furnish the proper elements for building up the various tissues 
of the body and to maintain the functional vigor and tone of the 
stomach. 

371. What are Alimentary Principles ? 

Alimentary Principles are primary foodstuffs. They are not 
foods, but are simple substances of which foods are composed, 
and bear the same relation to foods that Proximate Principles do 
to Tissues. 



Digestive System. 59 



372. How are Alimentary Principles classified? 
Alimentary Principles, like Proximate Principles, are grouped 

into two classes, Inorganic and Organic. The Organic Alimen- 
tary Principles are divided into Nitrogenous and Non-nitro- 
genous. 

373. What are the most important Inorganic Alimentary 
Principles ? 

Water, and the chlorides, phosphates, and sulphates of the 
bases, sodium, potassium, magnesium and calcium. These prin- 
ciples, with the exception of Water and the chloride of sodium, 
or common salt, arc taken as food only in combination. 

374. What are the two classes of Nitrogenous Alimentary 
Principles ? 

Proteids and Albuminoids. 

375. What are the sources of Proteid Principles ? 

Proteids are obtained from both animals and plants. The 
most important are Myosin and Syntonin from lean meats, egg 
albumen from the white of eggs, Casein from milk and cheese, 
and Gluten from various plants. 

376. What are the sources of Albuminoids ? 
Albuminoids are obtained mainly from the fibrous tissues of 

animals. The most important is Gluten. 

377. What are the two classes of Non-nitroge7ious Principles ? 
Hydrocarbons and Carbohydrates. 

378. What are Hie sources of Hydrocarbons ? 
Hydrocarbons are obtained from animal fats and vegetable 

oils. The most important are Stearin, from tallow and suet, 
Palmatin from butter and lard, and Olein, from animal and vege- 
table oils. 

379. What are the sources of Carbohydrates ? 
Carbohydrates are mainly of vegetable origin. The most 

important are Starch, Sugar, and Gums. 

380. What is the object of cooking foods ? 

Cooking softens foods, breaks down their tissues, and renders 
them more easily masticated and digested. It also makes them 
more palatable by imparting to thern agreeable flavors. 

381. What length of time is required to digest foods ? 

From two to four hours, depending upon the kind of food, 
how it is prepared, the manner in which it is eaten, and the state 
of the system. 



7 : Manual of Physiology. 



382. What are cured foods ? 

Cured foods are foods preserved by evaporating, salting, can- 
ning, etc They are commonly not as palatable or nntritions as 
when fresh. 

383. What are the two great classes of Foods ? 
Foods proper and Auxiliary Foods. 

:S^ ~"-.z: !''■■: :'■:■: ;:, ; Fz::-:: : ;-" F: :F r * v/ .-• - -" 

Organic and Inorganic. 

385. What are the two classes of Organic Foods ? 

Animal and Vegetable. 

3j86l What are the two classes of Animal Organic Foods? 

-rogenous and Non-nitrogenous. The Nitrogenous group 
is composed of those foods in which nitrogenous alimentary 
principles predominate ; the Non-nitrogenous of those in which 
the non-nitrogenous principles are in the excess. 

'■'. *kat are the mast important Nitrogenous Animal 
Foods f 

Flesh* in all its varieties of bird, beast, and fish, Eggs, Milk, 

3|88l What are the most important Non-nitrogenous Animal 

Batter* Lard* Suet, etc 

389. What are the two classes of Vegetable Organic Foods ? 
2 3 i trogenous and Non-nitrogenous. 

390. What are the most important Nitrogenous Vegetable 

Cereal Grains* Beams* Peas* etc 

391. What are the most important Non-nitrogenous Vegetable 
Foods? 

Root Plants* Fruit* Sugar Cane* etc 

392. What are the most important Mineral Foods ? 
~. : . '• :■:■>■ .:::. Sz~.:. 

393. What are the uses of Water as a food? 

Water is a most important food, being used, 1st, to soften and 
dissolve other foods in the process of digestion ; 2nd, to furnish 
material for the bloo'd and other tissues of the body ; 3rd, to hold 
substances in suspension "while carrying them about the body. 
and washing away waste material ; and 4th, to reduce the heat of 
the body by evaporation from its surface 



Digestive System. 61 



394. What amount of Water is required daily as food? 
From three to five pints. This amount may may be taken 

entirely in combination in other foods. 

395. What are the uses of Common Salt as a food? 
Common Salt as a food proper is chiefly valuable as furnish 

ing necessary elements for the Gastric Juice and Bile. 

396. What are Auxiliary Foods ? 

Auxiliary Foods are alimentary substances containing but 
little nutritious matter, but which are chiefly valuable on account 
of their effects upon other foods, and upon the functional activity 
of the digestive and other organs. 

397. Into what two classes are auxiliary foods divided ? 

Stimulants and Condiments. The dividing line is not sharply 
drawn, since condiments are, in a certain sense, stimulants. 

398. What are Stimulants ? 

Stimulant Foods are those whose function is to increase vital 
activity or to strengthen and give tone to the system. 

399. What are the most important stimulant foods ? 
Coffee, Tea, and Chocolate. 

400. How does Coffee act as a food? 

Coffee tranquillizes the nerves, clears the intellect, and re- 
lieves the sense of fatigue. The proper use of coffee rarely has 
deleterious effects ; but when such is the case, it should be aban- 
doned. 

401. How does Tea act as a food? 

The action of Tea is similar to that of coffee. It also acts as a 
"negative food," delaying digestion. 

402. What is the value of Chocolate as a food ? 

The effects of Chocolate are similar to those of. coffee and 
tea, but in a less degree. It contains much more nutritious 
matter, and may be classed as a food proper. 

403. What are Condiments ? 

Condiments are auxiliarj' foods whose function is to give 
relish to other foods. They contain but little nutritious matter. 

404. What are the three classes of Condiments ? 
Saline Substances, Acids and Spices. 

405. What is the most important Saline Condiment? 
Common Salt, which, in addition to its use as a food proper, 

is a universal condiment. It stimulates taste and increases the 
flow of saliva. 



62 Manual of Physiology 



406. What is the most important Acid Condiment ? 
Vinegar, an Acid fluid prepared from many sources. It flavors 

food and stimulates appetite. 

407. Ji'hat are Spice Condiments? 

Spice Condiments are aromatic, pungent vegetable substances 
obtained from numerous sources, as fruit, flower, root, leaf, bark, 
and stem. The most important are Black Pepper. Red Pepper, 
Allspice, Nutmeg. Mustard, Clove, Cinnamon, Ginger. Garlic, etc. 

40S. What is Digestion ? 

Digestion is the process of preparing food in the alimentary 
canal for absorption through its coats. It consists in dissolving 
the food and separating the nutritive portions from the waste 
material. 

409. What are tlie steps in the digestive process? 
Mastication and Insalivation. Deglutition. Chymiflcation and 

Chylification. 

410. In what part of the alimentary canal do Mastication and 
Insalivation take place 

The operations of Mastication and Insalivation are carried on 
in the mouth. 

411. What is Mastication ? 

Mastication, or '" chewing," is the process of dividing and 
crushing the food by the teeth. The food is kept between tnc 
teeth by the joint action of the cheeks and tongue. 

412. What is the object of mastication? 

Food is broken by mastication into small particles so as to 
better enable the digestive fluids of the mouth and stomach to 
act upon it. 

413. What is Insalivation ? 

Insalivation is the process of mingling saliva and other 
fluids of the mouth with food in mastication. 

414. What two kinds of functions has saliva f 
Mechanical and Chemical. 

415. What are the mechanical functions of sal: \ 

It moistens food, making deglutition easier ; dissolves it 
developing taste ; and facilitates the mingling of the fluids o 
the stomach with it when it has psssed to that organ. 

416. What are the chemical functions of saliva ? 

It converts starch, an insoluble substance, into grape sugar 
a soluble one. It also, when carried with the food into the 
stomach, excites the flow of gastric juice. 



Digestive System. 63 



417. What is Ptyalin? 

Ptyalin is that element of the saliva which turns starch into 
grape sugar. 

418. Describe Deglutition, or swallowing ? 

After food has been properly masticated and mingled with 
saliva, it is forced to the back part of the mouth by the action 
of the cheeks and tongue, thence through the fauces and 
pharynx into the oesophagus by the rapid contraction of the 
muscles of the throat, and thence onward to the stomach. 

419. How do the muscles of the ossophagus act in deglutition ? 

Food is forced through the oesophagus by the dilation and 
subsequent contraction of rings of muscular fibre, the fibres 
relaxing to permit its passage, and contracting above it to force 
it downward. 

420. In ivhat part of the alimentary canal does Chymifica- 
tion, or Gastric Digestion, take place? 

In the Stomach. 

421. What is Chymifi cation ? 

Chymification is converting the masticated and insalivated 
food, received from the mouth, into Chyme in the stomach. It is 
both a mechanical and a chemical process. 

422. Describe the mechanical process of chymification. 

The stomach hy the combined action of its three coats of 
muscular fibres maintains a sort of churning motion, called the 
" peristaltic movement," which converts the food into a semi- 
liquid mass thoroughly mixed with the gastric juice. 

423. Describe the chemical process of chymification. 

The gastric juice converts proteids and albuminoids into 
closely allied substances called Peptones, which are soluble and 
therefore capable of being absorbed through the coats of the 
stomach and intestines. 

424. What is Pepsin ? 

Pepsin is that element in gastric juice which converts proteids 
into peptones. 

425. What is Chyme ? 

Chyme is a grayish, semi-liquid substance, composed of pep- 
tones, gastric juice, saliva, starchy substances and indigestible 
portions of food. 

426. What is Chylification? 

Chylification is the process of converting chyme into chyle. 



64 Manual of Physiology. 

427. Describe the process of chylification. 

After the chyme has passed through the pylorus into the 
duodenum, it is mingled with the bile and pancreatic juice, which 
convert it into a milky emulsion called chyle. 

428. What arc Trypsin and Pancreatin ? 

Trypsin and Pancreatin are active principles of the pancreatic 
juice. The former converts albuminoids into peptones ; the latter 
converts starch into sugar. 

429. What is Chyle? 

Chyle is a milky emulsion composed of various quantities of 
all the elements of foods and products of digestion. 

430. What are Digest:: Ferments 

Digestive Ferments are the active principles of the various 
digestive fluids. They are, including those already named, 
Ptyalin, Pepsin. Trypsin. Pancreatin, Iuvertin. undetermined Bile 
ferments, and Curdling ferments of the gastric juice, pancreatic 
juice and intestinal fluids. 

431. What is Dyspepsia ? 

Dyspepsia is a disordered state of the digestive system 
occurring in a variety of forms and degrees. It is not a well- 
defined disease; but is rather a class of symptoms that mav 
indicate any one of several different diseased sta:±r 

432. What are the causes ofdyspeps 

Dyspepsia results from eating too much, eating too little. 
eating too fast, eating too rich food, eating too poor food, lack 
of bodily exercise, melancholy, etc 

433. How should dyspepsia be treated? 

Where the disorder is great it should be treated only by a 
competent physician ; but in most cases it is a mental rather than 
-=. rhysica! disorder — hypochondria, in fact. It is in such cases a 
disease M pre-eminently suited for treatment by domestic quack- 
ery." and curable only by proper employment and the forgetting 
of self. 

434- What is "Biliousness"? 

"Biliousness," or a "'Bilious Attack." is a disordered state sup- 
posed to result from either a deficiency or excess of bile. The 
term is applied ignorantly to several diseased states having noth- 
ing in common. 

435. What are "Mumps"? 

" Mumps " are a diseased state characterized by swelling of 
the parotid glands. They are quite painful ; but if care is used to 
prevent taking cold, they soon run their course. 



Digestive System. 65 



436. Why is regularity of meals necessary for the maintenance 
of good health ? 

The stomach works best when working by a program, with 
regular hours for labor and rest. 



66 



Manual of Physiology. 




LYMPHATIC SYSTEM. 



Absorptive System. 67 



ABSORPTIVE SYSTEM. 



Didactic Note.— Teach the general anatomy of the lymphatic 
apparatus, with special attention to the minute structure of the 
capillaries and lacteals. Good drawings, showing the microscopic 
structure of lacteals, are found in school physiologies, and should 
be copied on the blackboard. Develop a clear conception of the 
routes by which nutritious matter enters the circulation. Show 
by simple experiment the osmose of liquids, using a bladder 
filled with brine and immersed in a vessel of pure water. Im- 
press the necessity of keeping the surface of the skin clean, and 
caution against poisoning. 



SPECIAL OUTLINE. 

2* Absorptive System. [See General Outline, page 8.] 

is Apparatus. 2 8 Special : Mesenteric 

i 6 Blood Vessels [See Circu- 25 Fluids. [Glands. 

latory System]. i 6 Lymph. 

2 6 Lymphatic System. 2 6 Chyle. 

V Thoracic Duct. 35 Processes. 

27 Right Lymphatic Duct. i 6 Absorption by blood cap- 

37 Receptaculum Chyli. illaries. 

47 Lymphatics. 2 6 Action of Lymphatics. 

i 8 General. 3 6 Action of Lacteals 

2 8 Special : Lacteals. 4 s Osmose of Liquids. 

57 Lymphatic Glands. 5 6 Propelling force. 

i 8 General. 4s Hygiene. 



437. What is absorption ? 

Absorption is the process by which substances are taken up 
from the alimentary canal, and from the surface and other parts 
of the body, and conveyed into the circulation of the blood. 



68 Ma?iual of Physiology. 



438. What is the double mechanism of absorption f 

Absorption is the function of two distinct apparatuses, the 
veins and the lymphatic vessels. The structure of the veins is 
described under the circulatory apparatus. 

439. What is the apparatus of the absorptive system proper ? 
The lymphatic vessels. Their sole function is absorption. 

440. Of iv hat does the lymphatic apparatus consist ? 

The Thoracic Duct, the Right Lymphatic Duct, the Receptac- 
ulum Chyli, the Lymphatic Vessels, the Lacteals, the Lymphatic 
Glands, and the Mesenteric Glands. 

441. Describe the Thoracic Duct. 

The. Thoracic Duct is the main trunk of the lymphatic 
system. It is about the size of a common goose-quill, and from 
fifteen to eighteen inches long, extending from the Receptac- 
ulum Chyli opposite the second lumbar vertebra to the left 
subclavian vein. 

442. Describe the Right Lymphatic Duct. 

The Right Lymphatic Duct is a short tube which conveys 
the lymph from the right arm, right shoulder, and right side of 
the head and neck to the right subclavian vein. 

443. Describe the Receptaculum Chyli. 

The Receptaculum Chyli is an oblong reservoir into which 
lymph and chyle are collected, and from which they pass through 
the thoracic duct into the circulation of the blood. 

444. Describe the Lymphatic Vessels. 

The Lymphatic Vessels are slender, thread-like tubes, knot- 
ted at intervals by small glands. They absorb the lymph and 
carry it to the Receptaculum Chyli, Thoracic Duct, and Right 
Lymphatic Duct. 

445. What are Lacteals ? 

Lacteals are the lymphatic vessels of the intestines. They 
carry chyle during the process of digestion. 

446. Describe the Lymphatic Glands. 

Lymphatic Glands are small, round, pinkish knots in the 
lymphatic vessels. They vary in size from that of a hemp-seed 
to that of an almond. 

447. Describe the passage of a lymphatic vessel through a 
lymphatic gland. 

As a lymphatic vessel approaches a lymphatic gland it divides 
into a number of small branches, called Afferent Vessels, which 
form a plexus in the substance of the gland, and after uniting, 



Absorptive System. 69 



within the gland, into a single tube called an Efferent Vessel, 
pass out on the opposite side. 

448. What arc Mesenteric Glands ? 

Mesenteric Glands are the lymphatic glands of the lacteals. 

449. How are substances absorbed by the blood capillaries? 

A net-work of blood capillaries situated just beneath the sur- 
face of the mucous coat of the alimentary canal drinks in through 
thin walls, by the principle of " osmose of liquids," whatever is 
fitted for direct absorption into the blood. 

450. What substances are absorbed from the alimentary canal 
by the blood capillaries ? 

Fluids and solids held in perfect solution, such as salts, 
sugars, etc., are taken directly into the circulation of the blood 
through the coats of the capillaries along the entire length of 
the alimentary canal. 

451. What is Lymph ? . 

Lymph is simply the plasma of the blood, containing a few 
white corpuscles and minute particles of the tissues in contact 
with which it is formed. 

452. How is Lymph formed? 

Blood, as such, being enclosed within continuous tubes, does 
not come into direct contact with the tissues of the body ; but 
where it passes through the capillaries its plasma transudes 
through their thin walls and bathes the neighboring tissues. 
This transuded fluid, which contains a small number of white 
corpuscles, is called lymph. 

453. Describe the action of the Lymphatics. 

The Lymphatics originate in plexuses of minute tubes, which 
drink in through little mouths the transuded blood plasma, or 
lymph, and carry it back into the circulation. 

454. Describe the work done by the lymphatics in an inflamed 
spot. 

When a wound is made in any part of the body an unusual 
amount of blood is sent to the spot, bearing materials for the 
repair of the breach; and a correspondingly large amount of 
plasma and white corpuscles is forced through the strained 
walls of the capillaries, thus largely increasing the w r ork of the 
lymphatics. 

455. What is Pus, or "Matter"? 

Pus is transuded plasma and white corpuscles gathered in an 
abcess at an inflamed spot. If it be healthy and be not meddled 
with by any lancing quackery, it will be rapidly carried back into 
the circulation by the lymphatics. 



70 Manual of Physiology 



456. How do the Lacteals act f 

Lacteals have little mouths in the villi of the small intestines, 
through which they absorb the chyle and carry it to the Recep- 
taculum Chyli and Thoracic Duct. When digestion is not in 
progress, the lacteals cany- lymph the same as other lymphatic 

vessels. 

457. What is the Osmose ofliq 

Osmose, or Dialysis - flic process by which fluids of dif- 
ferent composition and density, separated by a porous wall, pass 
hrough from s to side until the entire mass becomes homo- 
geneous. It is by this process that the lymph .gives materials 
to the cells of the tissues and takes mater: Is from them. 

458. What is the propelling force of the lymphatic circu- 
lation f 

Lymph is forced onward through the lymphatic vessels 
toward the main trunks by pre-r.;rr zaused by the action of 
the respiratory apparatus in inspiration and expiration, the 
numerous valves m the lymphatic vessels allowing passage in 
one direction only It is also crowded forward by new material 
constantly taken in by the little mouths of the vessels. 

459. Why is it necessary ic \eef i surface of the body clean / 

The skin has been called the H third lung " on account of its 
usefulness in exhalation and absorption ; and good health de 
pends upon its proper action, secured by keeping its pores open. 

460. H:~ are persons pc Wood-ivy t 

The poisonous exhalations of the ivy are absorbed through 
the skin. Contagious diseases are taken in the same way sc 
also medicines are administered by external application. 

461. Wh -ofula? 

Scrofula is a disease affecting the glands of the lymphatic 
svstem. 



Circulatory Apparatus. 



7i 



Temporal 
Artery. 

Carotid 
Artery. 



Aorta. 



Eenal 

Artery.' 

Iliac 
Artery. 



Femoral 
Artery. 



Anterior 
Tibial 

Artery. 



Art. 
Pediosa. 




Vertebral 
Artery. 

Subclavian 
Artery. 

Axillary 
Artery. 

Brachial. 
Artery. 



Cceliao 
Artery. 



Radial 

Artery 



Posterior 

Tibial 

Artery. 

Peroneal 
Artery. 



Arterial System in Man. 



72 Manual of Physiology 



CIRCULATORY APPARATUS. 



Didactic Note. — This System is readily outlined, and with, a 
proper use of the blackboard the general structure of its apparatus 
can be rapidly and thoroughly taught. Give special attention to 
the heart and capillaries. A beef's heart should be obtained from 
a butcher's shop and dissected in the presence of the class : its 
structure is very similar to that of the human heart. The use of 
a small compound microscope to show the corpuscles in the blood 
will add greatly to the interest of the study. The circulation of 
the blood through the capillaries in the web of the foot of a living 
frog can be shown with the same instrument. Drill the class 
individually and in concert, in tracing the circulation through the 
successive organs, until each pupil can follow it around from the 
left ventricle back to that cavity again. The functions of the 
blood and the changes that take place in it in the course of the 
circulation are important subjects of instruction. 



SPECIAL OUTLINE. 

3 4 Circulatory System. [See General Outline, page 8.] 

is Apparatus. i m Auriculo-Ventric- 

i 6 Organs. 2 X0 Semi-lunar, [ular. 

i" Heart. 2? Arteries. 

i 8 General Description. i 3 Structure. 

2 8 Parts. 2 8 Location. 

19 Divisions. t> 7 Veins. 

i i: Right. I s Structure. 

2 10 Left. 2 8 Valves. 

29 Chambers. 3 8 Location. 

i 10 Auricles. 4" Capillaries. 

2 I: Ventricles. 2 6 Divisions. 

39 Orifices. 1" Systemic. 

49 Valves. i 8 Left Heart. 



Circulatory Apparatus. 73 



2 8 Aorta and its branches. 2 6 Microscopic structure. 

3 8 Venas Cavae and their V Plasma. 

branches. 27 Corpuscles. 

4 8 Systemic Capillaries. 3 6 Kinds. 

5 8 Portal Vein. V Arterial. 

27 Pulmonic. 27 Venous. 

i 8 Right Heart. 4 6 Coagulation. 

2 8 Pulmonary Artery and 5 6 Functions, 

its branches. 35 Circulation. 

3 8 Pulmonary Veins and i 6 Routes. 

their branches. 2 6 The "two circulations." 

48 Pulmonic Capillaries. 3 6 Changes in the blood. 

25 Blood. 4 6 Propelling forces in circu- 

i 6 General description. 45 Hygiene. [lation. 



462. What is the Circulatory System? 

The Circulatory System is a collection of organs whose func- 
tion is the transportation of materials to the various parts of the 
body, as building material for the development and repair of the 
tissues, oxygen for chemical action, and ashes and waste matter 
for rejection from the body. 

463. How is transportation effected by the circulatory appa- 
ratus ? 

The circulatory system transports materials by means of a 
carrying fluid forced through a system of tubes. 

464. What are the organs of the circulatory system? 
The Heart, the Arteries, the Veins and the Capillaries. 

465. Describe the Heart, 

The Heart is a hollow, conical, muscular organ, about the size 
of a man's fist, and weighing from ten to twelve ounces. 

466. Where is the heart situated? 

The heart is situated in the median line of the thorax, imme- 
diately back of the lower two-thirds of the sternum, and extends 
obliquely downward toward the left. 

467. Why is the heart commonly believed to be in the left side 
of the thorax? 

The apex of the heart lies on the left side opposite the space 
between the fifth and sixth ribs, and its striking against the walls 



74 Manual of Physiology. 

of the thorax during the throbbing of the organ, causes the 
popular opinion as to the location of the entire heart in that 
region. 

468. Describe the structure of the heart? 

The heart is a hollow muscle, composed of several layers of 
anastomosing striated fibres. Its walls vary in thickness from 
one-twelfth to one-half inch, and enclose two entirely distinct 
cavities, each of which is separated by folding doors into two 
chambers. 

469. What is the Endocardium ? 

The Endocardium is a delicate membrane which lines the 
cavities of the heart. 

470. What is the Pericardium ? 

The Pericardium is a strong, double sack of fibro-serous 
membrane, which invests and supports the heart. 

471. What are the two principle divisions of the heart? 

The human heart is a double structure, consisting really of 
two distinct hearts, called the Left and the Right Heart, united 
into one organ. 

472. What are the four cavites of the heart ? 

Each division of the heart has two cavites, or chambers, an 
Auricle and a Ventricle. The auricles occup} 7 the upper portion 
of the heart ; and the ventricles, the lower. 

473. What are the orifices of the heart ? 

There are three sets of orifices in the heart: 1st, those 
through which the blood enters the heart, comprising two from 
the Venae Cavse into the right auricle and four from the Pul- 
monary Veins into the left auricle ; 2nd, the two doorways be- 
tween the auricles and ventricles ; and 3rd, those through which 
the blood leaves the heart — one from the right ventricle to the 
Pulmonary Artery, and one from the left ventricle to the Aorta. 

474. What are the valves of the heart? 

The valves of the heart are little doors which permit free 
passage of the blood in one direction, but close to prevent 
regurgitation, or flow, in the opposite direction. Each division 
of the heart has two valves, one between the two chambers, and 
one where the blood leaves the ventricle. 

475. Describe the structure of the valves between the cham- 
bers of the heart. 

The valves between the chambers of the heart, called the 
Auriculo- Ventricular Valves, are flaps, or folds, of the endo- 
cardium, hanging from the margins of the Auriculo- Ventricular 



Circulatory Apparatus. 75 

Orifices into the ventricles. Their free edges are attached to the 
walls of the ventricles by cords — the cordcs tendinece — long 
enough to permit their rising into contact with each other and 
closing the orifices. 

476. What are the Auriculo- Ventricular Valves called ? 

The valve between the right auricle and right ventricle, 
having three flaps, is called the Tricuspid Valve ; that between 
the left auricle and left ventricle, having two flaps, is called the 
Bicuspid Valve. The Bicuspid valve is also called the Mitral 
Valve, from a fancied resemblance to a Bishop's mitre. 

477. Describe the valves at the entrances of the Aorta and 
Pulmonary Artery. 

The entrances to the great arteries leading from the heart 
are guarded by valves called Semi-lunar Valves, formed by 
crescent-shaped folds, or pockets, which permit free exit of the 
blood from the ventricles and prevent regurgitation. 

478. What are Arteries ? 

Arteries are strong, elastic tubes through which the blood 
passes from the ventricles to all parts of the body. 

479. Describe the general structure of arteries. 

The walls of all the larger arteries consist of three coats : a 
tough outer coat of white fibrous connective tissue, an elastic 
middle coat of involuntary muscular fibres and yellow elastic 
connective tissue, and a delicate inner coat of elastic membrane. 

480. Where are the arteries situated? 

The arteries are usually situated in protected cavities, and on 
the flexor side of the limbs, near the bones, and beneath the 
large muscles, that they may be subject as little as possible to 
pressure and wounding. 

481. What are Vei?is? 

Veins are tubes through which the blood returns to the 
heart after being forced out through the arteries. 

482. Describe the general structure of veins. 

Veins are similar in structure to arteries, except that the 
middle coat is less developed, rendering their walls thinner and 
more flaccid. 

483. Describe the valves of veins. 

Veins are provided with semi-lunar valves, formed by folds of 
the inner coat, and placed so that the mouths of the pockets are 
turned toward the heart. They permit free passage of the blood 
toward the heart, and prevent flow i:i the opposite direction. 



76 Manual of Physiology . 

484. Where are the veins situated? 

Veins are usually situated in more exposed locations than 
the arteries. Deep-seated veins lie by the side of corresponding 
arteries, and are, therefore, called vena comites, or companion 
veins. 

485. What are Capillaries ? 

Capillaries are microscopic tabes, about one-tenth of an inch 
in length, joining the ultimate divisions of the arteries to the 
commencement of minute veinlets. As the arteries divide again 
and again, becoming smaller and smaller, they finally pass into 
capillaries, which, uniting again into larger tubes, form the veins. 

486. Describe the structure of capillaries. 

As the arteries grow smaller the middle and outer coats 
gradually disappear, until in the capillaries only the inner coat 
remains, through whose delicate structure the plasma of the 
blood readily passes to the tissues. 

4S7. Into zi'hat two great divisions is the Circulatory System 
: 

Systemic, or that of the body in general, and Pulmonic, or 
that of the lun^ ps 

488. TiTtich heart \ or side of the heart, belongs to the systemic 
division of the circulatory apparatu : 

The left heart belongs to ffa e sy st emi c division of the circu- 
latory apparatus, and on account of the greater force required to 
drive the blood through the general system the walls of its ven- 
tricle are thicker than those of the ventricle of the right heart. 

489. What is the principal artery of the systemic division of 

: : 

The Aorta, a tube about an inch in diameter, which arises 
from the upper part of the left ventricle, extends upward for 
about two inches, arches backward toward the left over the root 
of the left lung, descends through the thorax along the left side 
of the vertebral column, pierces through the diaphragm, and 
extends in the abdomen to a point opposite the fourth lumbar 
vertebra, where it terminates by division into two branches called 
the Right and Left Common Hi 

490. What are the three parts or di\ f the aorta ? 
.-.- :h of the Aorta, Thoracic Aorta and Abdominal Aorta. 

491. ttliat branches arc : .: en off from the arch of the aorta t 
Coronary. Innominate, Left Common Carotid, and Left Sub- 
clavian. The Innominate is ery short, dividing into Right Sub- 
clavian and Risfht Commc 



Circulatory Apparatus. 77 



492. What branches are given off from the Thoracic Aorta ? 
No large branches are given off from the thoracic aorta ; but 

many small ones run to the walls of the thorax, lung tissue, etc. 

493. What branches are given off from the Abdominal Aorta ? 

Cceliac Axis, Superior Mesenteric, Renal, and Inferior Mes- 
enteric. The Cceliac Axis, after extending about an inch, divides 
into three branches, the Gastric, Hepatic, and Splenic, supplying 
the stomach, liver, spleen, and pancreas; the two Mesenteric 
branches supply the intestines ; and the Renal extend to the 
kidneys. 

494. Describe the arteries which carry the blood to the head. 
Blood is forced to the head through the Right and Left 

Common Carotids and the Vertebral Arteries. The Carotids 
pass upward on each side of the neck in front, dividing at the 
angle of the jaw into two branches, External and Internal 
Carotid Arteries ; the external branches supply the face and 
scalp, and the internal extend to the brain. The Vertebral Arte- 
ries branch off from the Subclavian Arteries, and pass up through 
arches in the transverse processes of the six upper cervical ver- 
tebrae to the back part of the brain. 

495. What is the ''Circle of Willis" ? 

The Circle of Willis is a ring of arterial tubes formed at the 
base of the brain by anastomosing branches of the Carotid and 
Vertebral arteries. This arrangement furnishes two routes for 
the passage of blood to all parts of the brain, so that if one 
should be obstructed the other would be available. 

496. Describe the arteries that carry the blood to the upper 
extremities. 

Blood is forced to the upper extremities through the Sub- 
clavian arteries and their branches. A subclavian artery extends 
outward under the clavicle to the armpit, where it is called the 
Axillary artery, thence down along the inner .sfde of the 
humerus, where it is called the Brachial artery ; at the elbow 
it divides into two branches, called, from their positions, Radial 
and Ulnar arteries, which pass on to the hand, where they unite 
to form the Palmar Arch ? 

497. Describe the arteries which carry blood to the lower ex- 
tremities. 

The Common Iliac arteries, formed by the bifurcation of the 
Aorta opposite the fourth lumbar vertebra, divide, after extend- 
ing about two inches, into the External and Internal Iliac arte- 
ries, the former carrying blood to the lower extremities, and the 
latter to the viscera and walls of the pelvis. The external division 



78 Manual of Physiology. 



of the Common Iliac artery extends down along the front and 
inner side of the thigh to the knee, where it divides into two 
branches, the Anterior and Posterior Tibial arteries : the portion 
along the upper two-thirds of the thigh is called the Femoral 
artery ; and that along the lower third and in the hollow of the 
knee joint, the Popliteal. 

498. What is the anastomosis of arteries ? 

The anastomosis of arteries is their communication with each 
other by means of connecting branches, as in the Palmar Arch 
and the Circle of Willis. 

499. What are the two principal veins of the systemic division 
of the circulatory system ? 

The Superior and Inferior Vencs Cavce. The latter extends 
from opposite the fourth lumbar vertebra to the right auricle, 
and carries the blood from all parts of the body below the dia- 
phragm to the heart ; the former is a short trunk which carries 
blood from the whole upper half of the body to the right auricle. 

500. What is the Portal Vein? 

The Portal Vein is the main trunk of an auxiliary circula- 
tion : it carries the blood from the spleen, pancreas, and walls of 
the stomach and intestines to the liver, where it is distributed 
throughout the tissues of that organ. 

501. What heart, or side of the heart, belongs to the Pulmo- 
nary division of the circulatory system? 

The Right Heart belongs to the Pulmonary division of the 
circulatory system. It receives the blood from the body and 
pumps it into the lungs. 

502. What is the principal artery of the Pulmonary division 
of the circulatory system? 

The Pulmonary Artery, which extends upward for about two 
inches from the right ventricle and divides into two branches, 
called the Right and Left Pulmonary Arteries, which carry the 
blood directly to the lungs. 

503. What are the Pulmonary Veins ? 

The Pulmonary Veins are four short trunks, which carry the 
blood from the lungs to the left auricle, entering that cavity by 
four separate orifices. 

504. Describe the arrangement of the pulmonary capillaries. 
The Pulmonary Artery, in its ultimate divisions, forms a 

dense net-work of capillaries on the walls of the air cells and air 
passages, bringing the blood into easy access to the purifying air 
currents. 



Circulatory Apparatus. . 79 



505. What is the Blood? 

The Blood is the nourishing fluid of the body ; it also consti- 
tutes a flowing current for the transportation of various materials. 

506. Give the physical characteristics of the blood? 

Blood from the arteries is scarlet, from the veins, dark purple ; 
it is saline to the taste, clammy to the touch, and is slightly denser 
than water. 

507. Describe the microscopic structure of the blood. 

The blood is composed of a nearly colorless, transparent fluid, 
called the Plasma, in which float minute Red and White Cor- 
puscles. 

508. What is the composition of the Plasma of the blood ? 

The Plasma, or Liquor Sanguinis, is composed of a perma- 
nently fluid portion, the Serum, and certain albuminous sub- 
stances, called Fibrin Factors. 

509. Describe the Red Blood Corpuscles. 

The Red Blood Corpuscles are circular biconcave discs, about 
^ns of an inch in diameter and j^hoo °f an inch in thickness. 
It is only when collected in masses that they have a pronounced 
red color ; seen singly, each is a pale straw color. 

510. What gives the blood its color? 

The color of the blood is due to the presence of small parti- 
cles of coloring matter, called Hcsmoglobin, in the red corpuscles. 

511. What are White Blood Corpuscles? 

White Blood Corpuscles are minute, spherical bodies, rather 
smaller than the red, and having all the characteristics of the 
true animal cell. 

512. What changes are supposed to take place in the blood cor- 
puscles ? 

White blood corpuscles, which are identical with the corpus- 
cles of the lymph and chyle, or but slight modifications of them, 
are supposed to be gradually changed by some unknown process 
into red corpuscles, which having served their purpose as oxy- 
gen carriers are thought to be destroyed in the spleen and liver.. 

513. What are the two kinds of blood? 

Arterial, or bright red blood of the arteries, and Venous, or 
dark purplish-red blood of the veins. The change in color is 
due to the effect of oxygen upon the Haemoglobin in the red 
corpuscles. 

514. Describe Coagulation of blood. 

Blood drawn from the body separates in a short time into 
two parts, a more or less solid Clot, and a fluid called Serum. 



: «: 



-'/*•:' ...".." .**' f :• ;■; "_• r_- 



7 — -'■ -f- f-ii ::r:'::r; :f ~irer 
'-- -'- '- - - : ■' — ;•- -•- - ' - ftterli ::-^ firriis : 

— eir ~esllrS lef ic: —file li ~ ISOlrS. 

. ."' ' - ■' 7 ■ -•-' -' V.\: : 
ashes tine tsssmesy, owreeys oaiygj e m to 
: -~ --":.::- i:tt:i nuntsm? :~its :.r:ili- 



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:.: fir ririrri::; :r_iif f:r 



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- 



~:n fie left Tet~mt:lr :f fie feint fie "-*.:<: -i r.isses 
nrofCDgJa tine Aorta and its bcamcries to the capillaries in the 
is tissues of* the body; frari gric cap: 

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rft irmlzle fr: — fir r:i: trm.ile : : :; :: ; .:::; fie nr lit 
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:ts :-::_:? 1: fie :iifl m.rs :n fie 

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lis :.: fie -: : — i:li -iv:t 1 it ireis m i 
from t&e carjiHaries of tii-ose organs 

:: fie 3 :rt.f Vsm — f::i iinr.es it t.; 
te-t : iiifliries :_i:_n:_: fir n> 
. r : : r . : 1 : r :nt: ~e n r 1 ::• :c: fir : 1 11 
Infert : r ~ - \ Zi~i :.: fi r r.ft: iin.fr 
:: n--: ; fir - : :~i fie nrnt "eitn.f.e 
iiiffsntes ?-f- :mr~ Vein = left 1:1 fe 
fir left ~ er :r fe L~ii~ "f :•:<: :z its 

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_ i ~ ;"_"/ ■ fll r; ;.; 1 . _ .. ? 



Circulatory Apparatus. 



520. What are the "two circulations" ? 

The passage of the blood through the body is called the 
"Systemic Circulation;" and that through the lungs, the "Pul- 
monic Circulation." The two together, however, form but one 
circulation. 

521. What changes take place in the blood in the systemic 
capillaries? 

Blood in passing through the capillaries gives up the oxygen 
carried by its cells and materials for the repair and renovation of 
its tissues, and gathers up a burden of ashes and waste products 
to be carried to some excretory organ. On account of the loss of 
oxygen and the acquisition of waste matter the color of the blood 
changes from bright red to dark purple. 

522. What changes take place in the blood in the lungs? 

In the kings the blood throws off its load of carbonic acid 
gathered in the systemic capillaries, and takes a new supply of 
oxygen from the air cells. The color changes from dark purple 
to bright scarlet, principally on account of the action of the 
oxygen 011 the haemoglobin in the red corpuscles. 

523. What are the propelling forces in the circulation of the 
blood? 

The principal propelling force in the circulation of the blood 
is that exerted by the contraction of the chambers of the heart. 
Auxiliary forces are gravity, mechanical compression of the veins, 
and the action of the respiratory apparatus. 

524. How does the heart act in propelling the blood? 

When the two auricles become charged with blood from the 
venae cavae and pulmonary veins respectively, they contract si- 
multaneously, forcing the blood down into the expanding ventri- 
cles; immediately the ventricles contract and force the blood out 
to the lungs and body. After a brief pause these movements are 
repeated, producing the rhythmical beat of the heart. 

525. What are the movements of the heart called? 

The contraction of a chamber of the heart is called a Systole ; 
and its expansion, a Diastole. 

526. What produces the " beating of the heart " felt upon the 
left side of the chest. 

It is produced by the systole of the ventricles, which throws 
the apex of the heart upward against the side of the chest. 

527. What is the Pulse ? 

The Pulse is the throbbing of an artery, caused by the spurt- 
ing of the blood as it is forced onward by successive cardiac im- 
pulses. 



82 Manual of Physiology. 

528. What is "Heart Disease"? 

The term "heart disease" is applied to any organic or func- 
tional ailment of the heart, such as the thinning or thickening oi 
its walls, the wasting away of its valves, irregularity in its action, 
etc. Most cases of so-called heart disease are brain affections. 

529. What are A ms a fid Varicose Veins ? 

Anuerisms are permanent dilations and enlargements of por- 
tions of arteries by a partial rupture of their coats ; similar en- 
largements in veins are called Varicose Veins. 

530. How can the flow of blood from a wound be check: 

If the blood be bright red and spurting in jets, it is from an 
artery, and can best be checked by a compress between the wound 
and the heart ; but if it be dark purple and flowing in a steady 
stream, it is from a vein, and the compress must be on the vein 
on the side of the wound away from the heart. Lint, dry earth, 
or a simple bandage applied directly to a small wound will check 
the flow. 

531. What is Congestion ? 

Congestion is an unusual accumulation of blood in some or- 
gan or part of the body, resulting from checking the natural flow 
of the blood through the tissues involved. Blushing is tempo- 
rary congestion of the small blood vessels of the face and neck ; 
and a "Cold" is congestion of the lungs and viscera, 

532. What is Inflammation ? 

Inflammation is a congested state of the capillaries and 
smaller blood vessels in some part of the body, caused by some 
irritation which produces an unusual determination of blood to 
the part. It is characterized by redness, heat, swelling and pain. 

533. What causes Fainting? 

Fainting is caused by a lack of blood in the brain ; therefore 
a person exhibiting a tendency to faint should be placed in a 
horizontal position, that the heart may more easily drive the 
blood to that organ. 



Respiratory System. 



83 



HEART AND I^UNGS 




A View of the Bronchia and Blood- Vessels of the Lungs as shown by Dissec- 
tion, as well as the relative Position of the Lungs to the Heart. 1, End of the 
Left Auricle of the Heart. 2, The Right Auricle. 3, The Left Ventricle with its 
Vessels. 4, The Right Vertricle with its Vessels. 5, Pulmonary Artery. 6, Arch 
of the Aorta. 7, Superior Vena Cava. 8, Arteria Innominata. 9, Left Primi- 
tive Carotid Artery. 10, Left Sub-C]avian Artery. 11, The Trachea. 12, The 
Larynx. 13, Upper Lobe of the Right Lung. 14, Upper Lobe of the Left Lung. 
15, Trunk of the Right Pulmonary Artery. IB, Lower Lobes of the Lungs. The 
Distribution of the Bronchia ard of the Arteries and Veins, as well as some of 
the Air-Cclls of the Lungs, are also shown in this dissection. 



84 Manual of Physiology. 



RESPIRATORY SYSTEM. 



Didactic Note — Special attention should be given to this 
System on account of its intimate relations to good health and 
the prevalence of disease resulting from the ignorant and heed- 
less neglect of simple hygienic laws concerning it. Here, as 
elsewhere, the first requisite is a knowledge of the apparatus, 
both as seen with the unaided eye and as revealed by the micro- 
scope. The lungs, or " lights," of a hog, with the trachea 
attached, can be readily obtained for dissection in the presence of 
the class. The purification and oxygenation of the blood are 
attractive subjects for investigation, even for the youngest pupils. 
The instruction on the importance of pure air should be accom- 
panied with warnings against "draughts." What may be called 
fresh-air idiocy has killed more people than all the wars in the 
world's history. Bad as are the effects of breathing air deficient 
in oxygen, the evils resulting from sitting in currents of air from 
open windows are ten times worse. Few people are injured per- 
manently by rebreathing air in close rooms, while thousands die 
every year from " fresh air." The preventioJi of colds, nasal 
catarrh, consumption, etc., is undoubtedly the most important of 
all hygienic considerations ; and teachers should give it the atten- 
tion it demands. The instruction on voice and speech, which 
occurs incidentally in connection with this system, should be 
concreted in practical drills with the class. 



SPECIAL OUTLINE. 

44 Respiratory System. [See General Outline, page 8.] 

is Apparatus. 57 Trachea. 

i 6 Air Passages. 6? Bronchi. 

1 7 Nasal Passages. 2 6 Lungs. 

2? Mouth. 17 General description. 

37 Pharynx. i 8 Location. 

47 Larynx. 2 8 Form. 



Respiratory System. 



85 



3 8 Size. 


3" Branches of Pul- 


4 8 Weight. 


monary Veins. 


5 s General appearance. 


3 10 Lymphatic ves- 


6 8 Covering: Pleura. 


sels. 


Structure. 


1" Lymphatics. 


i 8 Mechanical. 


2" Bronchial 


19 Right Lung. 


Glands. 


i 10 Parts. 


4 10 Nerves. 


i 11 iVpex. 


3 6 Auxiliary apparatus. 


2" Base. 


17 Thoracic Cage. 


3 11 Root. 


27 Muscles of thorax. 


2 10 Lobes. 


37 Diaphragm. 


i 11 Superior. 


25 Atmosphere. 


2" Middle. 


i 6 Physical characteristics. 


3 11 Inferior. 


2 6 Chemical composition. 


29 Left Lung. 


35 Processes. [Respiration. 


i 10 Parts. 


i 6 Mechanical movements : 


i 11 Apex. 


V Inspiration. 


2 11 Base. 


27 Expiration. 


3" Root. 


2 6 Chemical changes. 


2 10 Lobes. 


V In the air. 


i 11 Superior. 


27 In the blood. 


2" Inferior. 


37 In the tissues. 


2 8 Microscopic. 


i 8 Decomposition. 


19 Investing membrane. 


2 8 Regeneration. 


i 10 Serous Coat. 


3 8 Calorification. 


2 10 Areolar Coat. 


3 6 Sound formations. 


29 Parenchyma — Lobules. V Kinds. 


i 10 Air vessels. 


i 8 Vocalization. 


i 11 Bronchial 


2 8 Whispering. 


Tubes. 


27 Modifications. 


2 11 Air Sacs. 


i 8 Speech — Articulation. 


3" Air Cells. 


2 8 Song. 


2 10 Blood vessels. 


3 8 Whistling. 


i 11 Branches of Pul- 


4 8 Sighing and Yawning. 


monary Artery. 


5 8 Laughing and Crying. 


2" Pulmonary Cap- 


45 Hygiene. • 


illaries. 





86 Manual of Physiology. 



534. What is the Respiratory System ? 

The Respiratory vSystem is a collection of organs whose func- 
tion is the purification and oxygenation of the blood. 

535. Of ivhat three parts does the respiratory apparatus con- 
sist f 

Air Passages, Lungs, and auxiliary apparatus. 

536. What are the Air Passages ? 

The Air Passages are the various cavities and tubes through 
which the air passes to reach the lungs. They are the Nasal Pas- 
sages, the Mouth, the Pharynx, the Larynx, the Trachea, and the 
Bronchi. 

537. Describe the Nasal Passages. 

The Nasal Passages are two large, irregular cavities in the 
nose, leading to the Pharynx. Their walls, formed of bone and 
cartilage, are covered by a delicate, moist membrane, supporting a 
growth of hairs which interlace across the passages. 

538. What are the Nostrils ? 

The Nostrils, or Nares, are the anterior and posterior door- 
ways of the nasal passages. Some anatomists apply the term to 
the passages themselves. 

539. Describe the mouth as an air passage. 

The mouth is a large, irregular passage, leading from the 
surface of the face at the lips to the Pharynx, into which it opens 
through the Fauces. 

540. Describe the Pharynx as an air passage. 

The Pharynx is a conical cavity, connecting both the nasal 
passages and the mouth with the Larynx. Food also passes 
through this cavity on its way from the mouth to the Oesophagus. 

541. Describe the Larynx. 

The Larynx is a conical box, composed of nine pieces of car- 
tilage, situated beneath the base of the tongue, and in front of the 
upper portion of the oesophagus, and opening upward into the 
pharynx and downward into the trachea. It is lined by a very 
sensitive, delicate membrane. 

542. 'Name the cartilages of the Larynx. 

Thyroid, Cricoid, Epiglottis, two Arytenoid, two Cornicula 
Laryngis, and two Cuneiform. 

543. What is " Adam? s Apple" ? 

"Adam's Apple " is a prominence in front of the neck, formed 
by the Thyroid cartilage, the most important of the cartilages of 
the pharynx. 



Respiratory System. 87 



544. Describe the Epiglottis. 

The Epiglottis is a thin, spoon-shaped plate of fibro-cartilage, 
which forms a sort of lid or trap-door for closing the entrance to 
the Larynx while food is passing through the pharynx. 

545. What are the Vocal Cords ? 

The Vocal Cords are bands of yellow, elastic tissue, which 
stretch across the cavity of the larynx from the thyroid cartilage 
in front to the arytenoid cartilages behind. They are covered by 
a thin layer of closely-adherent mucous membrane. 

546. What is the Glottis? 

The Glottis is the slit-like opening between the vocal cords. 
It is v-shaped, with the angle in front, and varies in width with 
the tension of the cords. 

547. Describe the Trachea. 

The Trachea, or Windpipe, is a rigid, cylindrical tube, some- 
what less than an inch in diameter and about four and a half 
inches in length, extending from the larynx down into the thorax, 
where it divides into the Bronchi. It is composed of yellow, 
elastic fibres, strengthened by from sixteen to twenty incomplete 
rings of cartilage, and lined by a mucous membrane. 

548. Describe the Bronchi. 

Opposite the third dorsal vertebra the trachea divides into 
two branches called the Bronchi, which extend diagonally out- 
ward to the lungs. The structure of these branches is the same 
as that of the trachea, except that the rings of cartilage are 
perfect. 

549. Describe the Lungs. 

The Lungs, the essential organs of respiration, are two large, 
pinkish-gray bodies, situated in the upper and lateral portions 
of the thorax, occupying about four-fifths of that cavity, and 
weighing together about forty-two ounces. The right lung is 
slightly larger than the left, owing to the inclination of the heart 
to the left side of the thorax. 

550. What is the Pleura ? 

The Pleura is the investing membrane of the lungs. It is 
reflected upon the walls of the thorax so as to form about each 
lung a double sac, whose moist inner surfaces are brought into 
contact in a full inspiration. 

551. What are the different parts of the lungs called? 

The upper part of each lung is called the Apex ; the lower 
part, its Base ; and the part by which it is joined to the heart and 
trachea, its Root, 



88 Manual of Physiology. 



552. Describe the structure of the Root of the lung. 

The Root of the lung is composed of the blood vessels leading 
from and to the heart, the bronchus, a plexus of nerves, lvm- 
phatics, and connective tissue — all wrapped in the reflection of 
the pleura. 

553. What are the Lobes of the lungs? 

Each lung is partially divided by deep fissures into Lobes, or 
smaller lung bodies, the right into three and the left into two. 
Each lobe is composed of still smaller masses of lung substances, 
called Lobules. 

554. Describe the strticture of the lungs. 

The lungs are composed of a light, porous, spongy texture, 
called the Parenchyma, bound together by areolar tissue, and 
enclosed in a thin, transparent serous membrane. 

555. Describe the Parenchyma. 

The Parenchyma, or lung substance, is entirely made up of 
arteries, veins, lymphatics, bronchial tubes, and nerve filaments, 
which are arranged in minute, pear-shaped masses, called Lobules. 
These lobules are distinct from each other, but are closely bound 
together by connective tissue. 

556. Describe the air vessels of the lungs ? 

A bronchus on entering the lung divides and subdivides, by 
twos, until the ultimate divisions are reached, which terminate in 
pear-shaped expansions, called Infundibula. On the walls of the 
Infundibula are minute pouches, called Air Cells, separate from 
each other, but all opening into the central cavity. It is esti- 
mated that the lungs contain over 600,000,000 of those cells. 

557. Describe the blood vessels of the lungs. 

The branches of the Pulmonary Artery upon entering the 
lungs divide again and again until they reach the capillaries, 
which form a dense net-work upon the walls of the infundibulae 
and air cells ; from these capillaries arise minute veinlets, which 
unite to form the Pulmonary- Veins, through which the blood re- 
turns to the heart. 

55S. Of what does the auxiliary apparatus of the respiratory 
system consist ? 

The " thoracic cage," the muscles of the thorax, and the dia- 
phragm. 

559. Describe the Thoracic Cage as a part of the respiratory 
apparatus. 

The Thoracic Cage is a conical cavity, formed by the spinal 
column, the sternum, and the ribs. The ribs slope downward and 



Respiratory System. 89 



forward in such a manner that raising their front extremities en- 
larges the cavity of the thorax and causes a current of air to flow 
inward; depressing them decreases the cavity and forces a cur- 
rent of air outward. 

560. What thoracic muscles aid in producing the respiratory 
movements ? 

The Levatores costarum and External intercostales by their 
combined action raise the ribs and thus enlarge the thoracic 
cavity ; the Internal intercostales and the Triangularis sterni 
draw the ribs downward and thus diminish the thoracic cavity. 

561. Describe the Diaphragm as a part of the respiratory 
apparatus. 

The Diaphragm is a muscular wall between the thorax and the 
abdomen. When at rest, it arches up into the thorax ; when con- 
tracted, it is drawn down in the center and flattened, thus increas- 
ing the cavity of the thorax. It is the principal agent in pro- 
ducing inspiration. 

562. What are the physical characteristics of the Atmos- 
phere ? 

The Atmosphere, or air, is a colorless, elastic fluid surround- 
ing the earth and flowing readily into all cavities under the pres- 
sure of gravitation. It expands under the action of heat, and 
holds vapors and gases in solution. 

563. What is the chemical composition of the atmosphere ? 
The atmosphere is not a chemical compound, but a mere 

mechanical mixture of two gases, Oxygen and Nitrogen, in the 
ratio of 21 to 79, by volume. It also contains, at all times, small 
quantities of watery vapor and carbonic acid. 

564. Which of the two gases composing air is necessary to life? 
Oxygen ; it is a necessary factor in the renovation of tissues 

and in the producing of heat. Nitrogen seems, so far as concerns 
animal life, to be valuable only as a means of diluting the other- 
wise too active oxygen. 

565. What are the two mechanical movements of respiration, 
or breathing ? 

Inspiration and Expiration. 

566. Describe the process of inspiration. 

By depressing the diaphragm and elevating the sternum and 
anterior extremities of the ribs, the thoracic cavity is enlarged, 
the air contained in the lungs expands and becomes rarer, and 
external air, under the influence of gravity, rushes in to restore 
the equilibrium. 



90 Manual of Physiology. 



567. Describe the process of Expiration. 

By the r sing of the diaphragm into the thorax and the de- 
tre^in^ :: :nr ri : = the :!i:n:;: :=— irj 1; ~aie -~L:: m :. - 
portion of the air contained in the lnngs is forced oat 

56S. JThat effect has the elasticity of the lung structure upon 
respiration f 

The respira: : r~ m lavements depend in part upon the eLasti : ty 
: "he lnngs, which tend constantly to pull together, bnt are pre- 
vente 1 [ re s sure of air within not balanced by pressnre of air 
withont in the unyielding, air-tight thorax. 

569. What do the terms Stationary Air and Tidal Air mean? 

The lnngs aH ays rontain some air whi :L; has been calle" 
physiologists Stationary Air, while that which Bows in tc join 
during an inspiration is called Tidz A 

570. What do the terms Residual Air, Supplemen: :nd 
Complemental Air mean f 

The air remaining in the lnngs after the most - alent expira- 
tion, is called Residua/ .-: the :.".rere:;:e erween the Resa inal 
Air and the Stationary Air, during ordinary breatlnn g is called 
Supplemental Air; the additional air which can be forced into 
the lnngs and air passages by a violent effort after an ordinary in- 
halation, is called Complemental A 

5-: :;':.:: . .- -'. :'■:- ' -~..y -"-"■■": - 

The lltal Capacity is the entire volume : f air that can be 
fca -:en into the lnngs I y the m : st ~ : lent inhals... : n i::r: :ne m : s: 
violent expiration. For the average healthy man it is al oat :: r 
cnbic inches, -while for the same person the amount taken n 
an ordinary inhalation is only abon: 3 ; : nine inches. 

5 -2. What is the average rate of breathing f 

"nder ordinary circumstances a healthy person, sit: 

quietly and not conscious that his respirations are being counted, 
will breathe about fifteen times a minute. 

5-5. What amount of air is required for each person per dm 

Counting 30 cubic inches for each inspiration, an I : 5 i nsf - 

rations per minute the total amount required for each person in 

24 hours is 374 :u:ic feet. 

574. What changes take place in the air in the lun 6 

The change in the air while in the lun^.- is fourfold: in 
temperature, in volume, in humidity, and in chemical composi- 
:-. : .. : c"_: s-e'.y relate 1 the atr is 

the heat of the lungs, expanded by be 1 . and drinks in 

more moisture on account of its expansion. 



Respiratory System. 91 



575. What are the chemical changes in the air in the lungs ? 
Air taken into the lungs gives up oxygen to the blood and 

takes carbonic acid from the same source. Air, on entering the 
lungs, is, ignoring aqueous vapor, about 21 per cent. Oxygen and 
79 per cent. Nitrogen, with a trace of Carbonic Acid ; the same 
air on leaving the lungs is about 16 per cent. Oxygen, 80 per 
cent. Nitrogen, and 4 per cent. Carbonic Acid. 

576. Describe the process by which air reaches the ultimate 
divisions of the bronchial tubes. 

Since, after the most violent forced expiration, there still 
remains in the lungs about 100 cubic inches of air, it would be a 
natural inference that the pure air inhaled would drive this 
vitiated air forward into the smaller passages and cells, and that 
the pure air itself remaining in the bronchi and larger tubes 
would be forced out again by the following expiration, and no 
oxygen would reach the blood ; but this is not the case ; the tidal 
air, on coming into contact with the stationary air, rapidly 
mingles with it by the law of diffusion of gases, aided by a 
peculiar alternate expansion and contraction of the minute 
tubes in the lung substance. 

577. Describe the process by which air gives up oxygen and 
receives carbonic acid in the lungs. 

Air in the infundibula and air cells is separated from the 
blood in the surrounding plexus of capillaries by a very delicate 
membrane, through which oxygen passes to the blood and 
carbonic acid to the air, in accordance with physical and chem- 
ical laws. The membrane admits of a ready transfusion of 
gases, which are impelled to the passage principally by the law 
of diffusion already mentioned. Chemical affinity also has some 
influence in the action. 

578. What are the functions of the respiratory apparatus in 
expressing thought ? 

The spoken language, as a means of communicating thought, 
is entirely the product of the respiratory apparatus. Air is ex- 
pired through the respiratory passages in such a way as to pro- 
duce sound, which, modified by change in the form of the passage, 
becomes speech. 

579. By what two processes are sounds produced by the re- 
spiratory apparatus ? 

Vocalization and Whispering. 

580. What is Vocalization ? 

Vocalization is producing sound by the vibrations of the vocal 
cords. The cords are stretched with more or less tension across 



gi Manual of Physiology. 

the opening into the larynx, and air in expiration is forced throngh 
the slit between them and across their edges, cansing them to 
vibrate. The sound prodnced varies in loudness, dependent upon 
'che force of the expiration ; it varies in pitch, dependent upon the 
Hon of the cords; and it also varies in quality \ dependent upon 
... - cxturc of the cords. 

: : : B 'Ami is Whispering? 

Whisperisg is producing a rustling sound by driving the air 

vard through jthe respiratory passages, without vocalization. 

This ; rring is pninng through the air tubes with the vocal cords 

entire!;/ relaxed. 

5 : : U "at is Articulation ? 

Articulation is the process of modifying whispered and voiced 
sounds by the action of the lips, teeth, tongue, palate, etc. The 
modification is mainly effected by interrupting the current. 

5^5. What is Speech? 

Speech is articulated sound; i. e., sound carved into words bv 
the lips, teeth, tongue, etc. 

:" . _ hat is il . ~ Speech and Song ? 

In Song the current of vibrating or rustling air is less broken 
by the vocal organs of the mouth than in Speech. Song, like 
Speech, may be either whispered or voiced. 

- : . What is Whistli?;, 
Whist] ag is forcibly exhaling or inhaling through the con- 
tracted orifice made by puckering the lips. The sound produced 
E partially articulated by the lips, cheeks, tongue and teeth. 

What are Sighing and Yawning? 
These two processes are alike in that they produce unarticu- 
lated, unvoiced sounds. In Sighing a prolonged, silent inspira- 
tion is followed bv an audible expiration ; in Yawning both in- 
spiration and expiration are forced and audible. 

" - :he sounds in Laug : . : Crying produced? 

The sounds in Laughing and Crying are very similar, in many 
instances identical ; they are produced by short and rapid spas- 
modic expirations, in which the sound is more or less vocalized. 

: . What arc Coughing and Sneezing ? 

In Coughing and Sneezing there is a full inspiration followed 
by an explosive expiration, caused by first keeping the glottis 
closed and then suddenly opening it to permit the exit of the 
dammed up air. If the air passes out through the mouth it is a 
Cough ; if through the nose, a Snee: e 



Respiratory System. 93 



589. What is Stammering ? 

Stammering is a nervous affection in which the proper action 
of the vocal organs is disturbed by twitching. Consciousness of 
the defect increases it. A full inspiration before speaking is the 
best preventive. 

590. What is Snoring? 

Snoring is the flapping to and fro of the soft palate in the 
divided air current flowing in or cut through both nose and 
mouth. 

591. What is Asphyxia ? 

Asphyxia is suffocation, or "oxygen starvation." It results 
either from cutting off the air supply, or from breathing air de- 
ficient in oxygen. 

592. What are Pleurisy ', Croup, Bronchitis and Pneumonia? 

These diseases are inflammations of different portions of the 
respiratory apparatus. Pleurisy is inflammation of the pleura, or 
investing membrane of the lungs ; Croup, of the mucous mem- 
brane of the larynx and trachea ; Bronchitis, of the mucous mem- 
brane of the bronchial tubes; and Pneumonia, of the lung sub- 
stance. 

593. What is Consumption? 

Consumption is a disease of the lungs, in which tubercles 
form, break down and ulcerate. It is characterized by a gradual 
wasting away of the body under the distress of a continual cough. 

594. What is Nasal Catarrh ? 

Nasal Catarrh is inflammation of the mucous membrane of 
the nasal passages. It is characterized by a chronic discharge of 
fluid — often offensive in odor. 



94 Manual of Physiology. 



EXCRETORY SYSTEM. 



Didactic Note. — The extent and character of the instruction 
on the various organs and functions of the Excretory System must 
be determined by each teacher in view of his class and his own 
opinions of the propriety of such instruction. The kidneys of a 
sheep, obtained from the butcher's shop, may be used in teaching 
the location, form and structure of the human kidneys, to which 
they are similar ; and the skull of some animal will show the 
manner in which the teeth are inserted in the alveolar process. 
A small microscope or magnifying glass will reveal new beauties 
in the structure of the skin. Give special attention to the care of 
the hair, nails and teeth ; and make the instruction on bathing as 
simple and practical as possible. 



SPECIAL OUTLINE. 

54 Excretory System. [See General Outline, page 8.] 

1= Urinary Organs. 2" Ureters. 

I 6 Apparatus. 3 7 Bladder. 

V Kidneys. 4? Urethra. 

I 8 General description. 2 £ Functions. 

2 £ Structure. i~ Matter excreted. 

i? Mechanical 2" Effect on the blood. 

i 10 Capsule. 25 Lungs [See Respiratory Sys- 

2 10 Ki dney substance. tern] . 

3 10 Central cavity. 3^ Liver [See Digestive System] 

25 Microscopic. 45 Skin. 

i ID Of Cortical por- i 6 Structure. 

tion. 17 Cuticle : Epidermis. 

2 1D Of Medullary por- 2" Cutis: Dermis. 

tion. 2 6 Appendages. 

3 10 Urinary vessels. V Hairs. 

4 10 Blood vessels. i E General description. 



Excretory System. 95 



2 8 Structure. 3 6 Glands. 

3 8 Functions. 1 7 Sudoriferous. 

27 Nails. 27 Sebaceous. 

i 8 General description. 4 6 Functions. 

2 8 Structure. V Protecting and Support- 

3 8 Functions. ing. 

37 Teeth. 27 Organ of touch. 

i 8 General description. 37 Excretion. 

2 8 Structure. I 8 Matter excreted. 

3 8 Classification. 2 8 Effect on the blood. 

4 8 Functions. 55 Hygiene. 



595. What is the Excretory System ? 

The Excretory System includes all those organs which have 
for their common function the removal of waste matters from 
the body, by separating them from the blood. 

596. What are the organs of the excretory system ? 
Kidneys, Lungs, Iyiver, and Skin. 

597. What are the Urinary Organs ? 

The essential urinary organs are the Kidneys ; and the acces- 
sory organs are the Bladder, in which the secretion is collected, 
the Ureters, two tubes which convey the secretion from the kid- 
neys to the bladder, and the Urethra, through which the contents 
of the bladder are discharged. 

598. Describe the Kidneys. 

The Kidneys are two dark red, bean-shaped bodies, about 
four inches long, two inches wide, and one inch thick, situated in 
the back part of the abdominal cavity, one on each side of the 
spinal column, opposite the last dorsal and first lumbar vertebrae. 

599. Describe the mechanical structure of the kidneys. 

A longitudinal section of a kidney, dividing it as a bean 
would split, exhibits, first, a thin, transparent covering, called the 
Capsule ; second, the kidney substance, consisting of an outer 
Cortical Portion and an inner Medullary Portion; and third, a 
central cavity, called the Sinus. 

600. Describe the microscopic structure of the Cortical Por- 
tion of the kidney substance. 

The Cortical Portion is a reddish-brown, friable layer, about 
one-fifth of an inch in thickness, and constituting about three- 



96 Manual of Physiology. 

fourths of the entire kidney substance. It is composed of little 
masses of tubules imbedded in connective tissue, and accompa- 
nied everywhere by blood vessels and lymphatics. 

601. Describe the microscropic structure of the Jfedutlary 
Portion of the kidney substance. 

The Medullary Portion consists of straight tubules, sur- 
rounded by blood vessels, and arranged in conical masses, called 
the Pyramids of Malpighi, which project into the central cavity. 

602. Describe the urinary vessels of the kidneys. 

The Uriniferous Tubules, which constitute the greater part 
of the kidney substance, commence in small globular sacs in the 
cortical portion, and after a very tortuous course discharge their 
contents into the central cavity from the summits of the Alalpig- 
hian Pyramids. About 1,000 of these minute tubes have their 
mouths on the apex of each of the eight to eighteen pyramids. 

603. Describe the blood vessels of the kidneys. 

The Renal Arteries carry blood into the kidneys through 
openings in their concave sides, called Hiluses, and divide and 
subdivide until the ultimate divisions are reached, which are 
coiled in little tufts, surrounded by the globular sacs of the 
urinary vessels ; from these little tufts of capillaries the blood 
is collected into the Renal I'eius. which carry it back into the 
circulation. 

604. Describe the Sinus of a kidney. 

The Sinus of a kidney consists of an oblong principal 
cavity, called the Pelvis, with two or three branching chambers, 

called Infundibula. 

605. What are the Ureters ? 

The Ureters are two duels about the size of a goose-quill and 
about 16 to 18 inches long, through which the urine passes from 
the kidneys to the bladder. 

606. What is the Bladder? 

The Bladder is the reservoir into which the continuously 
secreted urine is collected. It is an oval-shaped sac about five 
inches long and three inches wide, with a capacity of a pint 
or more. 

607. What is the Urethra ? 

The Urethra is the tube through which the urine is dis- 
charged from the bladder. 

60S. What is the composition of the renal secretion ? 

The Urine, or renal secretion, consists of water holding in 
solution waste matters taken from the blood. The waste matters 



Excretory System. 97 



consist almost wholly of crystalline nitrogenous substances, 
called Urea and Uric Acid, and mineral salts. 

609. What effect has the action by the kidneys upon the blood? 
The chief work of the kidneys is the removal of nitrogenous 

waste from the blood ; they also remove the small amount of 
carbonic acid that has accumulated since leaving the lungs, and 
the blood which leaves the kidneys is, therefore, the purest 
blood in the body. 

610. What arc the functions of the Lungs as excretory 
organs ? 

The chief function of the Lungs as excretory organs is the 
removal of carbonic acid from the blood ; they also remove small 
quantities of other waste matters and a considerable amount 
of watery vapor. 

611. What are the excretory functions of the Liver ? 

The nature of the secretion of the Liver, the Bile, is not well 
understood, but on account of the failure to connect it in any 
important way with the digestive process, it is thought to be 
largely an excrementious substance, containing carbon and 
hydrogen. 

612. What is the Spleen ? 

The Spleen is a dark red, flattened, oval body, situated at the 
left end of the stomach, and usually classed as a secretory or 
excretory organ. Its use is not understood ; but it is probably 
concerned in the production and renovation of blood corpuscles. 

613. What is the Skin ? 

The Skin is the outer covering of the body, which closely 
invests all its parts externally, and entering the external orifices 
of its cavities becomes the delicate mucous membrane. 

614. Of what two layers is the skin composed? 

The skin is composed of two distinct layers : an outer, the 
Cuticle, or Epidermis ; and an inner, the Cutis vera, or Dermis. 

615. Describe the structure of the Cuticle. 

The Cuticle, or " scarf skin," is composed of layers of small, 
flat cells, soft and moist within, and becoming dry, horny scales 
on the surface. It has no nerves or blood vessels, but its inner 
cells contain the coloring matter of the skin. 

616. Describe the structure of the Cutis vera, or true skin. 

The Cutis vera is a close net-work of fibrous tissue, in whose 
meshes nerves and blood vessels ramify. It also contains numer- 
ous small excretory glands. 



98 Manual of Physiology. 

617. JVhat are the appendages of the skin f 
Hairs, Nails, and Teeth. 
61S. What are Hairs ? 

Hairs are filaments, or thread-like bodies, growing upon the 

surface of the skin. 

619. Describe the mechanical structure of hairs. 

Hairs are mere modifications of the cuticle, or outer layer of 
the skin. Each hair consists of a bulbous Root, imbedded in a 
depression in the cuticle, called a hair follicle ; a hollow, cylin- 
drical Shaft; and a tapering Point. 

620. Describe the microscopic structure of the root of a hair. 
The root of a hair is a bulbous enlargement contained in a 

minute pit formed by the sinking of a portion of the cuticle 
down into the cutis. At the bottom of the little pit is a small 
projection over which a cup-like depression in the root of the 
hair fits. It is from this projection that the hair is developed, 
and when it is destroyed the hair no longer grows in that follicle. 

621. Describe the microscopic structure of the shaft of a 
hair. 

A transverse section of the shaft of a hair exhibits a thin, 
outer cortical layer, a thicker fibrous layer, and a central cavity 
containing a medullary substance. 

622. What gives hairs their color ? 

The color of hairs is due to pigment granules contained in 
the cortical layer. 

623. Hoiv many hairs are there in the human head? 

A careful count of the hairs on several heads shows the 
average to be from 90,000 to 140,000, with from 1,000 to 1,200 to 
the square inch. 

624. Hoii' do hairs "stand on end" f 

In and around the hair follicles are little bundles of muscu- 
lar fibres, called Erector pili, which acting involuntarily under 
fear cause the hair to stand up. 

625. What are the functions of hairs ? 

Hairs are a protection against heat and cold. Those of the 
face guard the orifices of the sensor}- cavities against the entrance 
of dust and other foreign substances ; the eyebrows shade the 
eyes from strong light and prevent perspiration from entering 
the orbit, and the eyelashes, hairs in the nostrils and ears and 
about the mouth have similar functions. 



Excretory System. 99 



626. What are Nails? 

Nails are plates of horny substance placed on the dorsal sur- 
faces of the extremities of the fingers and toes. They are a modi- 
fied form of the cuticle. 

627. Describe the mechanical structure of nails? 

Nails are convex on their outer surface and concave to the 
digits, and are imbedded in grooves made by folds of the skin, 
being attached along almost their entire length. The part pro- 
jecting back into the fold of the skin is called the Root, and the 
exposed part is called the Body ; the white, crescent-shaped part 
of the body, next to the root, is called the Lunula, and the part of 
the other extremity not attached is called the Free edge. 

628. How do nails grow ? 

Nails grow from their roots, pushing the part already formed 
outward toward the free edge. It is estimated that it requires 
about five months for the thumb nail to grow its full length and 
about four times as long for the nail of the great toe to accom- 
plish a similar growth. 

629. What are the functions of nails? 

Nails protect the ends of the fingers and toes, and add greatly 
to the mechanical perfection of the hand as an instrument in 
grasping firmly and in picking up small objects. 

630. What are the Teeth ? 

The Teeth are hard, ivory-like appendages of the skin set in 
folds of the mucous membrane pushed deep into sockets in the 
alveolar processes of the maxillary bones. They are not bones, 
but true appendages of the skin, developed from the mucous 
membrane. 

631. How many teeth are there? 

There are thirty-two teeth in a " full set," arranged symmetric- 
ally in the upper and lower jaws. 

632. What are Temporary Teeth ? 

The Temporary, or " Milk Teeth," cut through the gums in 
early childhood, at from three months to three years of age. 
They are but twenty in number, and are gradually replaced by 
the full set of Permanent Teeth between the ages of six and 
eight years. 

633. What are the parts of a tooth? 

Each tooth consists of three parts : the Body, projecting 
above the gum ; the Neck, surrounded by the gum ; and the Root, 
or Fang, imbedded in the alveolar process. The upper portion 
of the body is called the Crown. 



ioo Manual of Physiology. 



634. Describe the structure of a tooth? 

A vertical, or longitudinal section of a tooth exhibits a solid 
portion enclosing a cavity. The solid portion is composed mainly 
of Ivory or Dentine, which is covered in the body of the tooth 
with a thin layer of Enamel and in the root by a layer of Cortical 
Substance, or cement; the cavity contains a soft, sensitive sub- 
stance, called the Dental Pulp. 

635. What are the Gums? 

The Gums are dense, fibrous structures closely investing the 
alveolar processes and surrounding the necks of the teeth. 

636. What are the four classes of teeth with respect to form 
and use? 

Incisors, Canine, Bicuspids and Molars, which are arranged 
symmetrically in each half of each jaw, as follows, beginning at 
the middle in front : two Incisors, one Canine, two Bicuspids and 
three Molars. 

637. What are the functions of the teeth? 

The teeth belong to the digestive system and are the chief 
organs of mastication : the incisors are used in nipping or biting 
the food ; the Canine, in tearing it into pieces ; and the Bicuspids 
and Molars, in crushing and pulverizing it. 

638. What two varieties of glands discharge their secretions 
upon the surface of the skin ? 

Sudoriferous and Sebaceous. 

639. What are Sudoriferous Glands ? 

Sudoriferous, or " Sweat Glands," are minute glands whose 
office is separating perspiration from the blood and discharging 
it upon the surface of the skin. 

640. Describe the structure of a sweat gland. 

A sweat gland is a minute tube coiled and knotted into a 
globular mass, and discharging through a spirally-coiled duct 
upon the surface of the skin. 

641. What are the " Pores " of the skin ? 

The " Pores " of the skin are the mouths, or outlets, of the 
sweat glands. 

642. What is Perspiration ? 

Perspiration, or " Sweat," the secretion of the sudoriferous 
glands, is a transparent, colorless liquid, salt to the taste and 
having a peculiar odor. 

643. What is Insensible Perspiration ? 

When sweat evaporates as fast as it is secreted, it is called 



Excretory System. 101 



Insensible Perspiration, but when it dampens the skin, standing 
in drops on its surface, it is called Sensible Perspiration. 

644. What is the average daily amount of perspiration ? 
The average amount of perspiration excreted in twenty-four 

hours has been determined by experiments to be about two 
pounds. 

645. Why does violent exercise increase the flow of perspira- 
tion ? 

In violent exercise a greater quantity of blood is driven 
to the glands in a given time, and an increased secretion is 
the result. 

646. What are Sebaceous Glands ? 

Sebaceous Glands are minute, oil-secreting glands which 
discharge their softening and protecting secretion upon the 
surface of the skin, usually in the hair follicles. 

647. What arc the functions of the skin ? 

The skin protects and supports the soft parts of the body, 
is the organ of touch, and is one of the chief excretory organs. 

648. What waste matters are excreted through the skin ? 
The skin excretes in perspiration and exhalation watery 

vapor, carbonic acid, urea, common salt, etc. 

649. What effect has the excretory action of the skin upon the 
blood? 

The skin, like the kidneys and the lungs, tends in its proper 
a6lion to purify the blood. If the perspiration is excessive, as it 
is in violent exercise, it lessens the normal amount of water in 
the blood and produces " systemic thirst." 

650. What is Dandruff? 

Dandruff is persistent dead cells of the cuticle, occurring in 
irregular patches on the head and easity brushed away. 

651. What are Freckles ? 

Freckles are irregular deposits of coloring matter in the 
skin. 

652. What are Warts? 

Warts are tufted excrescences on the surface of the skin 
composed of aggregations of overgrown papillae. 

653. What are corns ? 

Corns are thickened portions of the cuticle similar in struct- 
ure to the nails. They are produced by pressure and friction 
upon the feet and other parts of the body, and are cured only by 
removing the cause. 



102 Manual of Physiology. 



654. How does hair "turn gray "? 

Hair turns gray or white by the disappearance of pigment 
granules from the medulla and the formation of air cells in the 
same substance. How this takes place is not known, but it does 
not mean that the hair is dead. 

655. Docs hair ever "turii gray in a single night " f 

There are well authenticated cases of the turning gray in a 
few hours of the entire growth of hair upon a head ; and the 
sudden appearance of single gray hairs and small patches of them 
is not infrequent. 

656. What are Blisters? 

Blisters are wounds caused by separating the cuticle from the 
cutis, by burning or otherwise ; the cuticle may be entirely re- 
moved or simply pulled away so as to form a cavity in which a 
watery pus collects. Holding the blistered part in milk gives the 
quickest relief. 

657. V/hat is Erysipelas ? 

Erysipelas is an inflammation of the skin, characterized by 
redness, heat and swelling, and frequently by small eruptions on 
the surface, which dry up, producing bran-like scales. 

658. What is Toothache ? 

Toothache is pain in the teeth caused by the decaying or 
breaking away of the solid portion so as to expose the dental 
pulp to the action of air and other foreign substances. Neural- 
gia of the face is often mistaken for toothache. 

659. What is the proper mode of caring for the teeth? 

The teeth should be carefully cleaned after each meal, using 
a stiff brush and water. Particles of food may be removed by 
soft wood toothpicks ; quills or metal toothpicks should not be 
used. 

660. What are the Hygienic reasons for bathing the surface 
of the body ? 

Bathing opens the pores of the skin and maintains its normal 
action in excretion ; it also removes excreted solid matters and 
prevents their reabsorption in a putrid, disease-producing state. 




Nervous System. 
a, Brain. &, Little Brain, c, Spinal Marrow, d, Facial Nerve, e, Brachial Pl«xua, 
caused by the union of several Nerves coming from the Spinal Marrow, f, Median Nervo. 
ff, Cubital Nerve, h, Internal Cutaneous Nerve of the Arm. i, Eadial and Musculo- 
cutaneous Nerve of the Arm. j, Intercostal Nerves, k, Femoral Plexus, c, Sciatio 
Plexus, m, Tibial Nerve. », External Peroneal Nsrve ; #. External Saphenous Nerve. 



104 



Manual of Physiology. 



CEREBRO-SPINAL NERVOUS SYSTEM. 



Didactic Note. — The anatomy of this System can be readily 
shown by blackboard outlines and diagrams. Special attention 
should be given to the selection of the matter to be taught ; the 
minute anatomy of the brain and the more abstruse theories of 
innervation should be excluded. Many questions will arise in 
the discussion, of which the teacher must be bold to say, " I don't 
know ! " No egotistical, scholarly pride should cause him to 
assert as known that which is as yet a mere assumption of some 
over-confident, materialistic philosopher. The connection be- 
tween the mind and the body is totally unknown, and all specu- 
lation upon that subject with children is improper. Impress the 
fact, however, that weakness and disease of the mind are usually 
associated with like states of the body, and urge a proper care of 
both. 



SPECIAL OUTLINE. 

i* Cerebro-Spinal System in General. [See General Outline, p. 8.] 



i s Apparatus. 

i 6 Cerebro-Spinal Axis. - 
V Brain : Encephalon. 
i 8 General description. 
2 8 Investing Membranes, 
i? Dura Mater. 
29 Arachnoid Membrane. 
39 Pia Mater. 
3 8 Divisions. 
19 Cerebrum. 

1 10 General description. 
2 10 Parts. 

1" Hemispheres. 
i 12 Right. 



i T 3 Anterior Lobe. 
2 J 3 Middle Lobe. 
3 13 Posterior Lobe. 
2 12 Left. 

i J 3 Anterior Lobe. 
2 J 3 Middle Lobe. 
3 X 3 Posterior Lobe. 
2 11 Corpus Callosum. 
3 10 Convolutions of sur- 
face. 
i 11 Eminences. 
2 11 Depressions. 
i 12 Fissures. 
2 12 Sulci. 



Cerebro- Spinal Nervous System. 



105 



4 10 Microscopic structure. 
1" Cortical portion. 
2" Medullary portion. 
29 Cerebellum. 

i 10 General description. 
2 io parts. 

1" Hemispheres. 
i 12 Right. 
2 12 Left. 
2 11 Median Lobe. 
3 10 Structure. 
i 11 Mechanical. 
i 12 Arbor Vitse. 
2 12 Corpus Dentatum 
2 11 Microscopic. 
i 12 White Matter. 
2 12 Gray Matter. 
39 Pons Varolii. 

i 10 General description. 
2 10 Structure. 
49 Medulla Oblongata. 
i 10 General description. 
2 10 Parts. 
3 10 Structure. 
4 8 Ventricles. 
27 Spinal Cord. 

i 8 General description. 
2 8 Structure. 
19 Mechanical. 

i 10 Enlargements. 
2 10 Fissures. 



3 10 Columns. 
29 Microscopic. 
i 10 Membranes. 
2 10 Nerve substance. 
2 6 Nerves. 

i? General structure. 
2^ Parts. 

i 8 Conductile cord. 
2 8 Extremities. 
19 Origin : Root. 
29 Peripheral termina- 
37 Classification. [tion. 

i 8 As to function. 
19 Sensory. 
29 Motor. 
2 8 As to origin. 
19 Cranial. 
29 Spinal. 
3 6 Ganglia. 

V Description. 
27 Distribution. 

4 6 Peripheral End-organs. 

V End-bulbs of Krause. 
27 Tactile Corpuscles of 

Wagner. 
37 Pacinian Corpuscles. 
25 Functions. 
i 6 In general. 
2 6 Of the brain. 
3 6 Of nerve centers. 
35 Hygiene. 



661. What is the Nervous System? 

The Nervous System is a collection of organs which bring 
the various parts of the body under the control of the mind and 
into sympathetic relation with each other. 



io6 



Manual of Physiology. 




A View of the Base of the Cerebrum and Cerebellum, together with their Nervea. 
1, Anterior Extremity of the Fissure of the Hemispheres of the Brain. 2, Posterior Ex- 
tremity of the same Fissure. 3, The Anterior Lobes of the Cerebrum. 4, Its Middle 
Lobe. 5, The Fissure of Sylvius. 6, The Posterior Lobe of the Cerebrum. 7, The 
Point of the Infundibulum. 8, Its Body. 9, The Corpora Albicantia. 10, Cineritiua 
Matter. 11, The Crura Cerebri. 12, The Pons Varolii. 13, The Top of the Medulla 
Oblongata. 14, Posterior Prolongation of the Pons Varolii. 15, Middle of the Cerebel- 
lum. 16, Anterior Part of the Cerebellum. 17, Its Posterior Part and the Fissure of its 
Hemispheres. 18, Superior Part of the Medulla Spinalis. 19, Middle Fissure of tbo 
Medulla Oblongata. 20, The Corpus Pyramidale. 21, The Corpus Restiforme. 22, The 
Corpus Olivare. 23, The Olfactory Nerve. 24, Its Bulb. 25, Its External Boot 26, 
Its Middle Root. 27, Its Internal Root. 28, The Optic Nerve beyond the Chiasm. 
29, The Optic Nerve before the Chiasm. 30, The Motor Oculi, or Third Pair of Nerves. 
81, The Fourth Pair, or Pathetic Nerves. 32, The Fifth Pair, or Trigeminus Nerves. 
83, The Sixth Pair, or Motor Externus. 34. The Facial Nerve. 35, The Auditory— the 
two making the Seventh Pair. 86, 37, 38, The Eighth Pair of Nerves. (The Ninth Pair 
are not here seen.) 



Cerebro- Spinal Nervous System. 107 



662. What are the two great divisions of the nervous system ? 
The Cerebro-Spinal and Sympathetic Systems. 

663. What are the divisions of the Cerebro-Spinal System ? 
The Cerebro-Spinal System is usually considered in two di- 
visions, the System in Ge?ieral and the Organs of Special Sense. 

664. What are the parts of the Cerebro-Spinal System in 
General ? 

The Cerebro-Spinal Axis, Nerves, Ganglia, and Terminal End- 
organs. 

665. What are the two parts of the Cerebro-Spinal Axis? 
The Brain and Spinal Cord. 

666. What is the Brain ? 

The Brain, or Encephalon, is that part of the cerebro-spinal 
axis which is contained within the cranial cavity of the skull ; it 
is a soft, egg-shaped body, weighing about fifty ounces, and con- 
stituting the chief ganglionic center of the nervous system. 

667. What three membranes invest the brain ? 

The Dura Mater, Arachnoid Membrane, and Pia Mater. 

668. Describe the Dura Mater. 

The Dura Mater is a dense, inelastic membrane of white 
fibrous tissue, which lines the interior of the skull and sends 
down three strong processes for the support of the brain. 

669. Describe the Arachnoid Membrane. 

The Arachnoid Membrane is a delicate web of blended fibers 
of white and yellow connective tissue, which loosely invests the 
brain between the Dura Mater and the Pia Mater. 

670. Describe the Pia Mater. 

The Pia Mater is a vascular membrane which closely invests 
the surface of the brain, dipping down into all its fissures. 

671. What are the four parts of the brain? 

The Cerebrum, Cerebellum, Tons Varolii, and Medulla 
Oblongata. 

672. What is the Cerebrum ? 

The Cerebrum is the principal part of the brain ; it lies in 
the upper and front part of the cranial cavity, and is the seat of 
intelligence. 

673. What are the tzuo great divisions of the Cerebrum? 

The Cerebrum is divided into the Right and Left Hemi- 
spheres by the Great Longitudinal Fissure extending along the 
middle line from the front to the back of the brain. The hemi- 



10S Manual of Physiology. 



spheres are joined together at their base by a broad band of white 
nerve matter, called the Corpus Caliosum. 

674. What are the Lobes of the brain ? 

Each hemisphere of the brain is divided by deep fissures into 
three parts, called the Anterior. Middle and Posterior Lobes. The 
fissure which divides the Anterior from the Middle Lobe is called 
the Fissure of Sylvius. 

675. What arc the Convolutions of the Cerebrum ? 

The Convolutions of the Cerebrum are rounded folds on the 
surface of the brain, separated from each other by fissures about 
an inch in depth, called Sulc 

676. Describe the structure of the Cerebrum. 

The Cerebrum is composed of two kinds of matter : a medul- 
lary, or white substance, constituting the principal part, and a 
cortical layer of gray matter, covering all its surface and dipping 
down into its fissures and sulci. 

677. What is the Cerebellum ? 

The Cerebellum, or " Little Brain," is that portion of the brain 
which is situated in the lower and back part of the cranial cavity. 

678. What are the three parts of the Cerebellum? 

The Cerebellum is divided into two lateral Hemisphere's, 
between which is a Median Lobe. 

679. Describe the structure of the Cerebellum. 

A vertical section through the inner third of either hemi- 
sphere of the Cerebellum exhibits a tree-like structure, called the 
Arbor Vitae. the trunk being composed of white nerve substance 
and the branches of gray. 

680. What is the Corpus Dentatum f 

The Corpus Dentatum is a mass of gray matter imbedded 
in the central white matter of the Cerebellum. 

681. What is the Pons Varolii? 

The Pons Varolii is a central mass of gray and white fibres, 
constituting the bond of union of the different divisions of the 
brain: it joins the Cerebrum to the Medulla Oblongata below. 
and to the Cerebellum behind. 

682. Describe the structure of the Pons I'arolii. 

fhe Pons Varolii is composed of alternate layers of transverse 
and longitudinal fibres intermixed with gray matter. 

683. What is the Medulla Oblongata ? 

The Medulla Oblongata is the enlarged upper extremity of 
the spinal cord, situated within the cranial cavity. 



Cerebrospinal Nervous System. 109 



684. What are the parts of the Medulla Oblongata? 

The Medulla Oblongata is divided longitudinally by fissures 
into two symmetrical halves, each of which is subdivided in like 
manner into four columns, called, from before backwards, the 
Anterior Pyramid, Lateral Tract, Restiform Body, and Posterior 
Pyramid. 

685. V/hat are the Olivary Bodies ? 

The Olivary Bodies are two oval masses situated in the upper 
portions of the Lateral Tracts. 

686. Describe the structure of the Medulla Oblongata. 

The Medulla Oblongata, like other parts of the brain, consists 
of both gray and white matter, but in this division the gray sub- 
stance is within and the white on the surface. 

687. What are the Ventricles of the brain? 

The Ventricles are chambers in substance of the brain formed 
by dilations of the minute central canal of the spinal cord on en- 
tering the skull. They are four in number, known as the First, 
Second, Third, and Fourth ; and a Fifth is recognized by some 
anatomists. 

688. What is the Spinal Cord? 

The Spinal Cord is that part of the Cerebro-Spinal Axis which 
is contained within the vertebral canal of the spinal column. 

689. Describe the Spinal Cord. 

The Spinal Cord is a cylindrical mass of nerve matter extend- 
ing downward from the brain to the lower border of the first 
lumbar vertebra, where it terminates in a slender process of gi ay 
substance, called Filum Terminate. It is about seventeen inches 
long and three-fourths of an inch in diameter. 

690. What are the two enlargements of the spinal cord? 

The spinal cord has two expansions ; the Cervical Enlarge- 
ment, extending from the third cervical to the first dorsal verte- 
bra, and the Lumbar Enlargement, opposite the last dorsal 
vertebra. 

691. What are the fissures of the spinal cord? 

The spinal cord is creased longitudinally by the Anterior 
Median Fissure in front and the Posterior Median Fissure behind, 
partially dividing the cord into two symmetrical halves, which 
are joined in the middle line by a band called the Commissure of 
the cord. In each half, somewhat back of the middle, are grooves, 
called Lateral Fissures ; and on each side of these are still smaller 
grooves, called Antero-lateral and Postero-lateral Sulci. 



no Manual of Physiology. 



692. What are the Columns of the spinal cord? 

The anterior and posterior median fissures and the lateral 
sulci divide each half of the spinal cord into three columns, called 
the Anterior, Lateral, and Posterior Columns. 

693. Describe the structure of the spinal cord. 

A transverse section of the spinal cord exhibits three mem- 
branes — the Dura Mater, Arachnoid Membrane, and Pia Mater — , 
enclosing a mass of white nerve substance, which contains a 
core of gray matter arranged in two crescent-shaped bodies. 

694. What are Nerves? 

Nerves are glistening white threads of nerve substance, ex- 
tending from the cerebro-spinal axis and the various ganglia to 
all parts of the body. 

695. Describe the structure of a nerve. 

A transverse section of a nerve exhibits the Neurilemma, en- 
closing fatty material called the White Substance of Schwann, in 
which there is imbedded a transparent thread called the Axis 
Cylinder. 

696. What are the parts of a nerve? 

A nerve consists of a conductile thread and its modified ex- 
tremities ; the inner or central extremity is called its Origin, or 
Root, and the outer extremity, its Peripheral Termination. 

697. What are the two classes of nerves with respect to func- 
tion f 

Nerve fibres which convey impressions from the various parts 
of the body to the nervous centers are called Afferent or Sensory 
Nerves ; and those that convey impressions from the centers out- 
ward are called Efferent or Motor Nerves. 

698. What is the difference between afferent and efferent 
nerves ? 

The principal difference between afferent and efferent nerves, 
so far as known at present, consists in difference in peripheral 
terminations. 

699. What are the two classes of nerves as to origin ? 

Cranial, or those having their origins within the skull ; 
and Spinal, or those having their origins along the spinal 
column. 

700. How are the Cranial Nerves classified? 

There are, according to the classification of Sommerring, 
twelve pairs of cranial nerves: 1st, Olfactory; 2nd, Optic ; 3rd, 
Motor oculi ; 4th, Pathetic ; 5th, Trifacial ; 6th, Abducens ; 7th, 



Cerebrospinal Nervous System. in 

Facial ; 8th, Auditory ; 9th, Glasso pharyngeal ; 10th, Pneumo- 
gastric ; nth, Spinal Accessory ; and 12th, Hypoglossal. Of these 
the 1st, 2nd, 5th, 8th and 9th pairs are nerves of the organs of 
special sense, and should receive attention in connection with 
those organs. 

701. How are the Spinal Nerves classified? 

There are thirty-one pairs of spinal nerves leaving the spinal 
cord through the intervertebral foramina and grouped according 
to location into five classes, as follows : eight pairs Cervical ; 
twelve pairs Dorsal; five pairs Lumbar ; five pairs Sacral, and 
one pair Coccygeal. 

702. Describe the origin or Root of a spinal nerve. 

A Spinal Nerve has two roots ; an anterior or motor root 
arising from the anterior horn of the gray substance of the cord, 
and a posterior or sensory root arising from the posterior horn. 
The fibres of these roots intermingle and form a single nerve 
trunk which sends little branches throughout the tissues. 

703. How do nerves subdivide ? 

Each nerve pursues its course separately from its origin to 
its terminus, but several nerves are bound together in a common 
sheath, called a Funiculus, which they branch out from. 

704. What is a Plexus of nerves ? 

A Plexus of nerves is a net-work of nerves formed by the 
anastomosing of nerves from one funiculus to another. 

705. What are Ganglia ? 

Ganglia are auxiliary nervous centers, similar in structure to 
the brain, though much less complex. 

706. Where are Ganglia situated? 

Ganglia are found at the posterior roots of the spinal nerves 
and at the junction of two or more nerves. 

707. How do nerves terminate ? 

Nerves terminate in General and Special modes. The Gen- 
eral mode is in delicate net-works of nerve filaments ; motor 
nerves and some sensory nerves terminate in this way. The 
Special modes are called Peripheral End-organs. 

708. What are Peripheral End-organs ? 

Peripheral End-organs are terminations of sensory nerves. 

709. What are the principal varieties of Peripheral End- 
organs ? 

The End Bulbs of Krause, the Tactile Corpuscles of Wagner, 
and the Pacinian Corpuscles. 



H2 Manual of Physiology. 



710. What are the End Bulbs of Krause ? 

The End Bulbs of Krause are minute nucleated capsules con-* 
taining a soft homogeneous core into which the axis cylinder of 
the nerve fibre passes and terminates in a coiled mass. They are 
found in the conjunctiva of the eye and the mucous membrane. 

711. What are the Tactile Corpuscles of Wagner? 

The Tactile Corpuscles of Wagner are minute corpuscles 
containing a soft structureless core in which the nerve fibres ter- 
minate by bulbous enlargements. They a.re found in the papillae 
of the skin of the fingers and toes. 

712. What are Pacinian Corpuscles? 

Pacinian Corpuscles are small masses composed of layers of 
cellular tissue arranged like the bulb of an onion and containing 
a minute watery core in which the nerve filament terminates in a 
bulbous knot. They are found in the fingers and toes and be- 
neath the skin generally. 

713. What are the functions of the nervous system? 

The two principal functions of the nervous system are the 
transmission of impressions from the various parts of the body 
to the brain for recognition and interpretation by the mind, and 
the conveying of messages from the brain and ganglia to the 
various organs of the body. It controls the vital processes and 
brings the different parts of the body into sympathetic relation 
with each other. It brings the mind into communication with 
the outer world through the Special Senses. 

714. What evidence is there that the Cerebrum is the seat of 
the mind ? 

"When the Cerebrum is small its possessor is an idiot; injury 
to the Cerebrum frequently produces idiocy or insanity ; and a 
well developed cerebral structure is usually indicative of good 
mental development. Intellectual activity is thought to deepen 
the sulci, increasing the cortical substance. 

715. What is the function of the Cerebellum? 

From experiments on living pigeons, it has been discovered 
that the principal function of the Cerebellum is the control of the 
voluntary muscles. 

716. What are the two classes of nerve centers? 

Nerve centers may be grouped into Reflex Centers and Centers 
of Consciousness. 

717. What are Reflex Nerve Centers? 

Reflex Nerve Centers are ganglia which receive impressions 
and control movements independent of consciousness, as when 
the burnt hand is snatched away before the consciousness of pain. 



Cerebro- Spinal Nervous System. 113 



718. What are Centers of Consciousness ? 

Centers of Consciousness are centers of mind control in 
which impressions become sensations and emotions, and in 
which volitions originate. 

719. Where do we feel pain ? 

Experiment has shown that the sensation of pain exists in 
the brain only. 

720. Why does striking the elbow cause the fingers to tingle? 

Compressing at the elbow the nerve leading to the hand pro- 
duces a sensation of pain, which is interpreted as originating in 
the peripheral termination of the nerve in the third and fourth 
fingers. 

721. What is the rate of the transmission of a nervous im- 
pulse ? 

A nervous impulse travels at the rate of somewhat more than 
100 feet per second, which is very much slower than the trans- 
mission of sound. 

722. What is Sleep ? 

Sleep is a cessation more or less complete of all forms of 
brain activity, during which the vital functions are performed in 
an imperfect and modified manner. 

723. What is Dreaming ? 

Dreaming is activity of the mind in the semi-conscious state 
intervening between sound sleep and waking. 

724. What is Nightmare ? 

Nightmare is a distressing dream occasioned by a disordered 
state of the digestive system. 

725. What is Neuralgia ? 

Neuralgia is a diseased state of the nerves characterized by 
intermittent pains. 

726. What is Paralysis ? 

Paralysis is the impairment or loss of sensation and the power 
of voluntary movement in a part of the body ; it results usually 
from injury or disease of the spinal cord. 

727. What is the condition of a healthy mind? 

A healthy mind requires a healthy body, proper exercise, 
rest, cheerfulness, and control of the passions. 



ii4 Manual of Physiology. 



SPECIAL SENSES. 



Didactic Note. — The structure of the eyeball should be taught 
by blackboard drawings and the dissection of two or three beef's 
or sheep's eyes in the presence of the class. Some knowledge of 
optics is necessary to teach this subject well, and teachers who 
have not studied physics should purchase an elementary text- 
book and make such preparation as can be made by private study. 
The anatomy of the ear is more difficult to teach than that of the 
eye, but the general plan of the apparatus can be readily shown 
on the blackboard. A few simple experiments, such as are given 
in the common school text-books on Physiology, will add greatly 
to the interest of the study. A double convex lens may be used 
to illustrate the action of the crystalline lens; simple tests for 
color-blindness may be improvised ; any simple musical instru- 
ment may be used in illustrating pitch, volume, and quality of 
sound ; try tasting an onion, holding the nose firmly and not in- 
haling ; try salt, sweet and sour things on different parts of the 
tongue ; roll a marble between the crossed ends of the first and 
second fingers, etc. Impress the importance of keeping these 
door-ways of the senses, " the windows of the soul," open for the 
reception of impressions of the external world, and show the 
influence of bad habits upon the accuracy and reliability of sense 
perceptions. 

SPECIAL OUTLINE. 

2* Organs of Special Sense. [See General Outline, page 8.] 

is The Eye. 2 10 Choroid, Iris, Cil- 

i 6 Apparatus. iary Processes. 

V Essential. 3 10 Retina. 

i 8 General description. 2? Humors. 

28 Structure. i 10 Aqueous. 

19 Tunics. 2 10 Crystalline Lens. 

i 10 Sclerotic and Cornea. 3 10 Vitreous. 



Special Senses. 



115 



27 Accessory. 
i 8 Eyebrows. 
2 s Eyelids. 
3 8 Eyelashes. 
4 8 Conjunctiva. 
5 8 Lachrymal Apparatus. . 
2 6 Functions. 

3 6 Hygiene. 3 s 

25 The Ear. 
i 6 Apparatus. 
1 7 External Ear. 
i 8 Pinna. 

19 Structure. 
29 Parts. 

1 10 Ridges and pro- 45 
cesses. 
i 11 Helix. 
2 11 Antihelix. 
3" Tragus. 
4" Antitragus. 
5" Lobule. 
2 10 Depressions. 

i 11 Fossa of the Helix. 
. 2" Fossa of the 
Antihelix. 
3 11 Concha. 
2 8 Auditory Canal : Meatus. 
27 Middle Ear : Tympanum. 
i 8 Membrana Tyrnpani. 
2 8 Auditory Ossicles. 

19 Malleus. 5 5 

29 Incus. 
39 Stapes. 
3 8 Openings. 

19 Orifices of Eustach- 
ian Tube. 
Fenestra Ovalis. 



39 Fenestra Rotunda. 
37 Internal Ear : Labyrinth. 
i 8 Vestibule. 
2 8 Semicircular Canals. 
3 8 Cochlea. 
2 6 Functions. 
3 6 Hygiene. 
The Nose. 
i 6 Apparatus 

1 7 The framework. 
27 Nasal Fossae. 
37 Schneiderian Membrane 
2 6 Functions. 
3 6 Hygiene. 
The Tongue 
i 6 Apparatus. 
V Parts. 
i 8 Root. 
2 8 Tip. 
3 8 Dorsum. 
4 8 Edges. 
27 Structure. 

i 8 Muscular body. 
2 8 Mucous Membrane. 
19 Circumvallate Pa- 
pillae. 
29 Fungiform Papillae. 
3 8 Filiform Papillae. 
2 6 Functions. 
3 6 Hygiene. 
Skin. 
i 6 Apparatus. 

17 General Structure. [See 

Excretory System.? 
27 Tactile Papillae. 
2 6 Functions. 
3 6 Hygiene. 



n6 



Manual of Physiology. 



728. What are Sensations ? 

Sensations are states of consciousness produced by impres- 
sions which originate in changes in the various parts of the body; 
these are conveyed to the brain along the sensorv nerves and are 
interpreted by the mind. 

729. What are the two classes of sensations t 
Common and Special sensations. 



Sclerotic 
Choroid 
Retina 



Tendon of rbcttt§ 



Hyaloid Membrane 




Ciliary Muscle 
and Ligament 



> Circular Sinus 
Canal cf Petit 



Yektical Section op the ErEBAiiu 

730. What are Common sensations ? 

Common sensations are perceptions of the simple physical 
properties and states; such as hardness, roughness, temperature, 
weight, hunger, thirst, weariness, etc. 

731. What are Special sensations ? 

Special sensations are differentiated modifications of the 
common sensations resulting from impressions made on the 
organs of Special Sense. 



Special Senses. 117 



732. What are Organs of Special Sense? 
The Bye, Bar, Nose, Tongue, and Skin. 

733. What is the Eye ? 

Tlie Bye is the organ of sight. 

734. What are the essential parts of the Eye? 
The Byeball and the Optic Nerve. 

735. Describe the Eyeball. 

The Byeball is a spherical body about an inch in diameter, 
securely lodged in a bony cavity in the front part of the skull. 

736. What are the parts of the Eyeball? 

The Byeball consists of three coats and three refracting 
media. 

737. What are the Coats or Tunics of the Eyeball? 

The coats of the eyeball named from without inward are, 1st, 
the Sclerotic and Cornea ; 2nd, the Choroid, Ciliary Processes and 
Iris ; 3rd, the Retina. 

738. Describe the Sclerotic Coat. 

The Sclerotic. Coat is a tough, white, opaque, fibrous mem- 
brane covering the back and sides of the eyeball, and appearing 
between the eyelids as the white of the eye. 

739. Describe the Cornea. 

The Cornea is the transparent covering of the rounded emi- 
nence in front of the eyeball. 

740. Describe the Choroid Coat. 

The Choroid Coat is a vascular tunic consisting mainly of 
blood vessels and loose connective tissue in which are imbedded 
black pigment granules. 

741. What are the Ciliary Processes? 

The Ciliary Processes are plaits or folds, about sixty in num- 
ber, in the choroid coat toward the front of the eyeball. 

742. What is the Iris ? 

The Iris is a circular, perforated curtain composed of muscular 
tissue, nerves and connective tissue. It is of different colors in 
different persons. 

743. What is the Pupil? 

The Pupil is the circular apperature in the center of the iris, 
through which light enters the eye. 

744. What is the Retina ? 

The Retina is a delicate membrane formed by the expansion 
of the optic nerve. It is a peripheral end-organ and is the essen- 
tial part of the organ of sight. 



n8 



Manual of Physiology. 



745. What are the Refracting Media or Humors of the Eye? 
The Refracting Media of the eye are the Aqueous humor, the 

Crystalline lens and the Vitreous Humor. 

746. Describe the Aqueous Humor. 

The Aqueous Humor is a watery fluid occupving the front 
part of the cavity of the eyeball between the cornea and crystal- 
line lens. 

747. What is the Crystalline Lens? 

The Crystalline Lens is a transparent, colorless, double con- 
vex lens situated in front of the eyeball between the aqueous and 
vitreous humors. 

74^. What is the Vitreous Humor ? 

The Vitreous Humor is a transparent, jelly-like substance 
which fills the concavity of the retina, and constitutes about four- 
fifths of the entire eyeball. 

749. What are the ac- 
cessory parts of the or- 
gan of sight ? 

The Eyebrows, Eye- 
lids, Conjunctiva and 
Lachrymal apparatus. 

750. What is the 
function of the eyebrows, 
eyelids and eyelashes? 

The function of the 
eyebrows, eyelids, and 
eyelashes is to protect 
the eye from too strong 
light and foreign sub- 
stances. 

751. What is the Con- 
junctiva ? 

The Conjuctiva is a delicate, mucous membrane lining eac 1 . 
eyelid and covering the front of the eyeball. 

752. What is the Lachrymal Apparatus ? 

The Lachrymal apparatus consists of Tear Glands, Lachry- 
mal Ducts and Nasal Ducts. Its function is the lubricating of the 
eyeball. 

753. Hon' do ive see ? 

Rays of light from an object enter the eye through the pupil 
and are focused by the refracting media on the retina, producing 




Front View of the Left Ere — moderately opened. 
1, Bupercilia. 2, Cilia of each Eyelid. 3. Inferior 
Palpebra. 4, Internal Canthos. 5, External Can- 
thas. 6, Caruncnla lacrymalia. 7, Plica Semilu- 
Jiaris. 8, Eyeball. 9, PupiL 



Special Senses. 119 



nervous impressions, which, interpreted in the brain, give percep- 
tions of the form, size, color, etc., of the object. 

754. What is "Color-blindness"? 

Color-blindness is inability to distinguish colors from each 
other. It is quite common, and should not cause distress, since 
similar imperfections are found in all the senses. 

755. What is '■'Nearsightedness''''? 

Nearsightedness is inability to see distant objects distinctly. It 
results from too great convexity of the cornea and crystalline lens, 
and is corrected by the use of convex glasses. 

756. What are Spectacles ? 

Spectacles are lenses set in frames and worn near the eyes 
for the purpose of strengthening them or correcting their defects. 

757. What is the "Blind spot" ? 

The blind spot is the end of the optic nerves where it enters 
the back of the eyeball ; rays of light falling on this spot pro- 
duce no impression. 

X O 

Hold the book directly in front of the face about four inches dis- 
tant, and, closing the left eye, look steadily at the letter X with the 
right. Both letters are at first distinctly visible, but slowly move 
the book back from the face, keeping the right eye fixed on the 
letter X, and at the distance of about six inches the letter O will dis- 
appear as the rays of light reflected from it fall on the end of the 
optic nerve. 

758. Should young people wear glasses? 

Defects in the structure of the eyeball can frequently be 
cured or relieved by the use of proper lenses, and persons, whether 
young or old, should, on the discovery of such defects, be at once 
provided with spectacles selected by a competent oculist. 

759. What is the Ear ? 

The Bar is the organ of hearing. 

760. What are the three divisions of the ear ? 
The External, Middle, and Internal ear. 

761. What are the two parts of the External ear ? 
The Pinna and Auditorv Canal. ■ 



120 



Manual of Physiology. 



762. What is the Pinna ? 
The Pinna, or Auricle, is 

an irregularly folded sheet of 
cartilage attached to the side 
of the head for the purpose of 
collecting vibrations of sound 
into the funnel-shaped entrance 
of the auditory canal. 

763. Describe the structure 
of the Pinna. 

The Pinna is composed of 
a thin plate of yellow fibro- 
cartilage covered by the skin. 

764. What are the ridges 
and processes of the Pinna ? 

The Helix, Antihelix ; Tra- 
gus, Antitragus, and Lobule. 

765. What are the depres- 
sions of the Pinna ? 

The Fossa of the Helix, 
the Fossa of the Antihelix and 
the Concha. 




An Anterior View of the External Ear 4 
as well as of the Meatus Auditorius, Laby- 
rinth, etc. 1, The Opening into the Ear 
at the bottom of the Concha. 2, The Mea- 
tus Auditorius Externus or Cartilagin- 
ous Canal. 3, The Membrana Tympani 
stretched upon its Ring. 4, The Malleus. 
5, The Stapes. 6, The Labyrinth. 



766. What is the Auditory 
Canal? 

The Auditory Canal, or Me- 
atus Auditorius Externus, is 

an irregular, cylindrical tube, about an inch and a quarter long, 
which extends obliquely inward and forward into the petrous 
portion of the temporal bone. 

767. Describe the Tympanum or Middle Ear ? 

The Tympanum is an irregular cavity, about the size of a 
small cherry, situated in the petrous portion of the temporal 
bone. It is filled with air, and traversed by a chain of little bones. 

768. What is the Membrana Tympani? 

The Membrana Tympani, or " Drum of the Ear," is a thin, 
semi-transparent membrane, situated at the inner extremity of the 
auditory canal, and separating it from the middle ear. 

769. What are the Auditory Ossicles ? 

The Auditory Ossicles, or " Little Bones of the Ear," are a 
chain of small bones, J:he Malleus, Incus, and Stapes, which 
traverse the middle ear from the membrana tympani to the inner 
ear. They receive their names from a slight resemblance to the 
hammer, anvil and stirrup, respectively. 



Special Senses. 121 

770. What are the openings in the walls of the Ear ? 
There are three principal openings in the walls of the middle 

ear; one into the Eustachian tube leading to the Pharynx ; the 
Fenestra Ovalis, a kidney-shaped opening, leading to the vesti- 
bule of the inner ear ; and the Fenestra Rotunda, a circular open- 
ing leading to the cochlea. 

771. Describe the Labyrinth, or Inner Ear ? 

The Labyrinth is a complex apparatus consisting of three 
parts, the Vestibule, Semicircular Canals and Cochlea, formed by 
a series of cavities in the petrous portion of the temporal bone. 

772. What is the Vestibule of the Inner Ear ? 

The Vestibule is the lobby or ante-chamuer of the inner ear, 
communicating between its parts, and with the middle ear through 
the fenestra ovalis. 

773. What are the Semicircular Canals ? 

The Semicircular Canals are three channels, about one- 
twentieth of an inch in diameter, arching out into the bone separ- 
ately from the vestibule, and returning to it after completing the 
greater parts of circles. 

774. What is the Cochlea ? 

The Cochlea is a spiral canal, having some resemblance to 
the common snail shell, extending from the vestibule into the 
substance of the temporal bone. 

775. How does the Auditory nerve reach the inner ear ? 

The Auditory nerve reaches the inner ear through the Inter- 
nal Auditory Meatus, dividing at the bottom of that cavity into 
two branches, one leading to the vestibule and semicircular 
canals, and the other to the cochlea. The ultimate divisions and 
terminations of these branches are uncertain. 

776. How do we hear? 

Sound waves collected in the external ear strike against the 
membrana tympani, which vibrates like the head of a drum, and 
sends the waves across the middle ear along the chains of little 
bones to the labyrinth, where they produce impressions upon the 
end-organs of the auditory nerve, which in the brain are inter- 
preted as volume, pitch, quality, etc. 

777. What is the function of the External Ear? 

The external auditory canal, with its flared expansion, the 
pinna, is simply designed to collect and focus sound waves upon 
the membrana tympani. 



122 Manual of Physiology. 

778. What are the functions of the Auditory Ossicles ? 

The principal function of the little bones of the ear is the 
transmission of sound across the cavity of the middle ear, but 
they have also a curious secondary function : the handle of the 
malleus, in contact with the membrana tympani, acts in the same 
manner as the " dampers " on the strings of a piano, to check the 
vibrations of the membrane when the aerial vibrations cease. 

779. What parts of the ear are thought to determt7ie the dif- 
ferent properties of sound ? 

Experiments and the study of the structure of the ear have 
led to the belief that the volume of sound is determined by the 
tympanum, the pitch by the cochlea, and the quality by the semi- 
circular canals. 

780. What is the function of the Eustachian Tube? 

The Eustachian Tube connects the middle ear through the 
pharynx with the external ear, and thus equalizes the pressure on 
the inner and outer sides of the membrana tympani, preventing 
injury to the membrane and securing accuracy in its vibrations. 

781. What is Deafness? 

Deafness is inability to hear or distinguish sounds, resulting 
from defects in the parts of the ear or from paralysis of the audi- 
tory nerve. 

782. What care does the ear reqicire ? 

The ear is the most delicate organ of the body, and demands 
the greatest care. Hard substances or cold water should not be 
allowed to enter the ear. Hardened accumulations of wax can 
usually be readily removed by a little tepid water and a soft cloth. 

783. Describe the structure of the Nose. 

The Nose is a triangular bod}- projecting from the middle of 
the face. Its walls are formed of plates of bone and cartilage, and 
its cavity is divided into large, irregular chambers by a vertical 
wall or septum. 

784. What is the Schneiderian Membrane ? 

The Schneiderian Membrane is the mucous membrane lin- 
ing the nasal fossae ; in its delicate structure are the terminal 
end-organs of the Olfactory nerve. 

785. How do we smell? 

Minute particles of the object smelled, floating in the air, 
are drawn into the nasal cavities by inhalation, and striking 
against the terminations of the nerve filaments produce impres- 
sions which are interpreted in the brain as odors. 



Special Senses. 123 

786. Why does "a cold in the head" temporarily ', wholly or 
partially, destroy the sense of smell? 

The inflamed mucous membrane is less sensitive, and the 
passage of the current of air is impeded by collections of nasal 
excretion. 

787. What care does the nose require? 

Acuteness of smell, as well as purity of voice and common 
decency, requires that at least the entrance of the nasal cavities 
should be kept free from accumulations of nasal excretions. 

788. What is the Tongue? 

The Tongue is the organ of taste. 

789. What are the parts of the tongue? 
The Root, L,ip, Dorsum, and Edges. 

790. Describe the structure of the tongue. 

The tongue is a mass of voluntary muscular fibres covered by 
a mucous membrane in which are the end-organs of the nerves 
of taste. 

791. What are the three classes of the papillce of taste? 
Circumvallate, Fungiform, and Filiform Papillae. 

792. Describe the Circumvallate Papillce. 

The Circumvallate Papillae, the largest of the three varieties, 
are flattened projections in little cup-like depressions, arranged 
in a v-shaped line on the back part of the dorsum of the tongue. 

793. Describe the Fungiform Papillcs. 

The Fungiform Papillae are little deep-red, club-shaped emi- 
nences, situated on the tip and edges of the tougue and scattered 
sparsely over its dorsum. 

794. Describe the Filiform Papillce. 

The Filiform Papillae are very minute, brush-like processes 
which cover thickly the anterior two-thirds of the dorsum of the 
tougue. 

795. How do we taste? 

Minute particles of substances are brought into contact with 
the papillae of taste, producing impressions which are inter- 
preted in the brain as savors. 

796. What are the specific functions of the different varieties 
of papillce ? 

Experiments have shown that bitter and salt substances pro- 
duce more impression on the back part of the tongue in the 
region of the circumvallate papillae ; sweet and sour substances, 
on the tip and edges ; and pungent substances on the dorsum. 



124 Manual of Physiology. 



797. What care does the organ of taste require? 

Acuteness in taste depends upon maintaining a healthy con- 
dition of the mucous membrane of the tongue, by avoiding sub- 
stances which tend to destroy the papillae and deaden the nerve 
filaments, as tobacco, strong condiments, etc. 

798. What is a "furred tongue "? 

A " furred tongue "is a coated condition of the dorsum of 
that organ, resulting usually from a disordered condition of the 
stomach. The " coating " consists of mucous epithelium cells, 
and a growth of microscopic organisms called bacteria. 

799. What is the organ of touch? 

The Skin, which is also a protective, supporting and excretory 
organ. 

800. Describe the papillce of touch. 

The papillae of touch are minute, conical eminences on the 
surface of the cuticle, about 1 ^- s of an inch in height and -%\q of 
an inch in diameter, in which are found Pacinian Corpuscles and 
other varieties of terminal end-organs. They are most numerous 
on the tips of the fingers, which are specially the instruments of 
touch. 

801. What properties are discovered by touch? 

Through the sense of touch we determine the properties of 
hardness, roughness, etc., and their opposites. 

802. What is the distinction between feeling and touching? 
Feeling is general and passive, while touch is special and 

active ; feeling is the general consciousness of physical states, 
while touching is a definite activity discovering specific proper- 
ties in external bodies. 

803. What care does the organ of touch require? 
Acuteness of touch depends upon cleanliness of the skin and 

freedom from calluses. This sense is also rapidly deadened by 
the use of alcoholic stimulants and tobacco, and by various forms 
of dissipation and self-abuse. 



Sympathetic Nervous System. 125 



SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM. 



Didactic Note. — This division of the Nervous System is 
usually too much neglected by teachers. The general study of 
its apparatus is not difficult to understand ; and its importance 
demands that it receive a fair share of attention. Show how in 
the reflex action which controls the vital processes the ganglia act 
as little brains ; and explain the wisdom of the provision which 
places these life functions beyond the control of the will, thus 
freeing the mind from their constant care, and securing them 
against capricious action. The sympathetic relations of the vital 
organs may be ir.ade the subject of beautiful lessons, the mate- 
rials for which may be drawn from the experiences and observa- 
tions of the pupils themselves. 



SPECIAL OUTLINE 

23 Sympathetic System. [See General Outline, page 8.] 

I 4 Structure. 2 6 Epigastric, 

is Double Gangliated Cord. 3 6 Hypogastric. 

i 6 Structure. 35 Subordinate Ganglionic 

17 Cords. Centers. 

2^ Ganglia. 45 Nerves. 

2 6 Divisions. i 6 Communicating. 

17 Cervical. 2 6 Distributory. 

27 Dorsal. 24 Functions. 

37 I^umbar. is Reflex control of visceral 

47 Sacral. organs. 

57 Coccygeal. 2$ Co-ordination of vital ac- 

25 Plexuses. tivities. 
i 6 Cardaic. 



804. What is the Sympathetic Nervous System ? 
The Sympathetic Nervous System is a somewhat indepen- 
dent auxiliary division of the Sensory apparatus, situated in the 



126 Ma?iual of Physiology. 

thoracic, abdominal, and pelvic cavities, and consisting of a num- 
ber of ganglionic centers with connecting and radiating nerves. 

805. By what other names is the Sympathetic System known ? 
Ganglionic System and System of Organic Life. 

806. Describe the apparatus of the Sympathetic System. 
The Sympathetic System consists of a central double chain 

of ganglia from which branch numerous nerves, forming three 
great plexuses, and distributing fibres to all the thoracic, abdom- 
inal, and pelvic viscera. 

S07. Describe the ganglionic center of the sympathetic 
system. 

The center of the sympathetic system is two rows of ganglia 
extending through the thoracic, abdominal, and pelvic cavities, 
and situated in front and on either side of the spinal column- 
There are forty-nine of these ganglia, viz. : twenty-four pairs, 
and an odd one in front of the coccyx common to both chains. 

SoS. What are the five divisions of the double gangliated 
cord t 

The different portions of the gangliated cord, named from 
the regions in which they are found, are, beginning above, the 
Cervical, Dorsal, Lumbar, "Sacral, and Cocc3 r geal. 

S09. What are the three great gangliated plexuses of the 
sympathetic system ? 

Cardiac, Epigastric, and Hypogastric Plexuses. 

810. Describe the Cardiac Plexus. 

The Cardiac Plexus is a net-work of nerves beaded with 
ganglia, situated on the dorsal side of the heart. 

811. What are the two divisions of the Cardiac Plexus? 
The Superficial Cardiac Plexus lying beneath the arch of the 

aorta, and the Deep Cardiac Plexus lying behind the arch of the 
aorta and in front of the bifurcation of the trachea. 

812. Describe the Epigastric Plexus. 

The Epigastric or Solar Plexus is a dense net-work of nerves 
and ganglia situated behind the stomach and in front of the 
aorta. 

813. What are the Semilunar Ganglia ? 

The Semilunar Ganglia are two irregular ganglionic masses 
situated on each side of "the solar plexus, formed by the aggrega- 
tion of smaller ganglia. They are the largest ganglia of the 
body. 



Alcohol and Narcotics. 127 



814. Describe the Hypogastric Plexus. 

The Hypogastric Plexus is a net-work of nerve filaments, 
without ganglia, situated in front of the promontory of the 
sacrum, between the two common iliac arteries, and sending 
nerves to all the pelvic viscera. 

815. What are the subordinate centers of the sympathetic 
system ? 

Besides the central ganglionic chain and the three great 
plexuses, there are numerous minute ganglia which form addi- 
dional centers for the origin of nerve fibres for supplying the 
separate viscera. 

816. What are the two classes of nerves of the sympathetic 
system ? 

The Communicating, joining the various ganglia to each 
other and to the spinal nerves ; and the Distributory, extending 
from the centers to the viscera. 

817. What are the functions of the sympathetic system? 

The sympathetic system controls by reflex action the vital 
functions of the thoracic and abdominal viscera, and brings into 
sympathetic relation the vital organs in such a manner that when 
one part suffers injury or distress all the others are more or less 
affected. 

818. Why is the sympathetic system called the System of 
Organic Life? 

On account of its intimate relations to the nutritive process, 
and because it is the sole nervous structure in the lowest forms 
of animal life, this system has been called the " System of 
Organic Life." 



ALCOHOL AND NARCOTICS. 



Didactic Note. — The importance of this subject and the prom- 
inence given it by legislative enactment demand that teachers 
make special preparation for teaching it. The instruction to 
be given is practically three-fold: 1st, concerning the nature and 
properties of the drugs themselves ; 2nd, concerning their effects 
on the material organism, on its functional activities, and on 
the intellectual and moral tone of the individual ; and 3rd, con- 



128 Manual of Physiolog 

cerning the treatment, both curative and preventive. In teach- 
ing the properties of the drugs, the point to be insisted on is that 
they are poisonous, no matter in what forms or in what quantities 
they are taken. Concerning their effects, the testimony of medi- 
cal experts and the observations of the pupils themselves can be 
confidently appealed to ; no one can use any of these poisons in 
an 3- form without losing in physical health, functional accuraev 
and vigor, and intellectual and moral power. The instruction on 
the treatment of the diseased states must manifestly be largely 
on the preventive phase of it ; but here and there a boy will be 
found who, under the influence of home surroundings and exam- 
ple, has acquired the tobacco habit, with such the conscientious 
teacher will labor earnestly for the cure. In the treatment of 
tobacco, which, on account of its more general and seemingly 
r r-pectable use, mdny deny a place in the list of poisons, care 
must be used to prevent arousing by extreme utterances, even of 
the truth, a home antagonism which will largely undo all the 
work of the school-room. Great tact and patience with the opin- 
ions of others are required in such instruction. '* Let not your 
good be evil spoken of; " but make no compromise with nil. 
Numerous simple experiments are given in the later text-bock- 
and others will suggest themsk - to the wide-awake teacher. 
Make the work simple and practical, and fix each lesson in the 
memory by illustrations and examples from nature and life. No 
greater responsibility rests upon teachers than that in connec- 
tion with this subject. 



ANALYTIC OUTLINE. 

Alcohol and Alcoholism. 2 s Apples, etc 

i z Alcohol. 2: Graii.r 

V Chemical composition. i 6 Corn, etc 

2 r Formation. 2 Z.irley. etc. 

i 4 Sources. k'otatoes, etc. 

is Fruits. - etc 

i 6 Grapes, etc. 2* Processes. 



Alcohol and Narcotics. 



i2g 



is Fermentation. 
25 Distillation. 
35 Rectification. 
45 Brewing. 
33 Properties. 
1 4 Solvent. 
2 4 Volatile. 
3 4 Antiseptic. 
4 4 Inflammable. 
5 4 Poisonous. 
6 4 Absorbent. 
43 Forms. 

14 Fermented. 

i5 From grape sugar. 
i 6 Ciders. 
2 6 Wines. 
25 From starch. 
i 6 Beer. 
2 6 Ale. 
3 6 Porter. 
4 6 Stout. 
2 4 Distilled, 
is Brandy. 
25 Gin. 
35 Whisky. 
45 Rum. 
53 Adulterations. 
1 4 Water, for profit. 
2 4 Drugs, for deception, 
is Coculus Indicus. 
25 Etc. 
63 Uses. 

1 4 As a food ? 
2 4 As a medicine ? 
3 4 As a luxury ? 
4 4 As a poison ! 
2 2 Alcoholism. 



i3 Forms. 
1 4 Chronic. 
2 4 Acute. 
23 Causes. 

1 4 Predisposing influences. 
2 4 Exciting causes. 
33 Pathology. 

1 4 Morbid anatomy. 
2 4 Functional derange- 
ment. 
3 4 Psychical derangement. 
43 Diagnosis. 
53 Prognosis. 
63 Treatment. 
1 4 Curative. 

1 s In acute stages. 
25 In chronic cases. 
24 Preventive. 

I s By personal resolution 
25 By state control. 
2 1 Tobacco and Nicotinism. 
i 2 Tobacco. 
13 Cultivation. 
23 Preparation. 
33 Adulteration. 
2 2 Tobacco poisoning. 
13 Causes. 
1 4 Chewing. 
2 4 Smoking. 
3 4 Snuffing. 
23 Pathology. 

1 4 Morbid anatonry. 
2 4 Functional derange- 
ment. 
3 4 Psychical derangement. 
33 Treatment. 
1 4 Curative. 



I^O 



Manual of Physiology 



2 4 Preventive. 
3 1 Opium and the Opimn Habit. 
i 2 Opium, 
is Source. 
23 Preparation. 
33 Forms. 
2 2 Opium poisoning. 
15 Causes. 

i 4 Eating opium. 
2 4 Injecting morphine 5 
hypodermically. 
2 3 Pathology. 

i 4 Morbid anatomy. 
2 4 Functional derangement. 
3 4 Psychical derangement. 
33 Treatment. 
I 4 Curative. 
2 4 Preventive. 
4 1 Chloral and the Chloral Habit. 
i 2 Chloral. 
i 3 Source. 



23 Preparation. 
2 2 Chloral poisoning. 
i 3 Causes. 
23 Pathology. 

1- Morbid anatomy. 
2 4 Functional derange- 
ment. 
3 4 Psychical derangement, 
33 Treatment. 
Cocaine and the Cocaine Habit. 
i 2 Cocaine. 
i 3 Source. 
23 Preparation. 
2 2 Cocaine poisoning. 
i 3 Causes. 
23 Pathology. 

1 4 Morbid anatomy. 
2 4 Functional derange- 

- ment. 
3 4 Pschyical derangement. 
3 3 Treatment. 



819. What is Alcohol? 

Alcohol is the intoxicating principle of fermented liquors. 

820. What is the chemical coinposition of alcohol ? 

In 100 parts of alcohol, 52.67 are carbon, 12.90 are hydrogen, 
34.43 are oxygen. 

821. From what sources is alco/wl obtained? 

Alcohol is obtained from the sweet juices of fruits and succu- 
lent vegetables, and from the starch of grain and root plants. 

822. How is alcohol formed? 

Alcohol is formed by the process of fermentation induced by 
yeast upon grape sugar. 

S23. What is Fermentation ? 

Fermentation is the process of decomposition or decay of 
sugar and starch. 



Alcohol and Narcotics. 131 



824. What is Yeast ? 

Yeast is a microscopic fungus by whose growth the process 
of fermentation is accomplished. 

825. What is Distillation ? 

Distillation is the process of separating the alcohol from 
water and other substances formed by the process of fermenta- 
tion. Alcohol is made by fermentation, separated by distillation. 

826. Describe the process of distillation. 

Distillation is the process of purifying a liquid by heating it 
until it passes off in steam, and then condensing the steam into, 
a liquid again in cold vessels. 

827. Describe the alcohol still. 

An alcohol still consists of a copper retort from which leads 
a coiled pipe passing through a large cask of cold water. 

828. How is alcohol distilled. 

Alcohol vaporizes at 172 , while water requires 212 of heat; 
therefore if alcohol mixed with water is heated in the still, the 
alcohol passes off first in steam, leaving the unvaporized water 
behind. 

829. What is Rectification? 

Rectification is the re-distillation of distilled liquors for the 
purpose of eliminating water and other impurities. 

830. What is Brewing ? 

Brewing is the process of fermentation by which beer and 
similar alcoholic drinks are formed from barley and other grains. 

831. Describe the process of brewing. 

The barley is first dampened and sprouted, to turn the starch 
into sugar ; then dried, to stop the growth of the sprouts so as to 
save the sugar ; then ground and steeped in warm water, to dis- 
solve the sugar ; then boiled with hops and cooled in large vats ; 
and then yeast is added to induce fermentation, which makes the 
alcoholic element of the beer. 

832. What is Malt? 

Malt is barley in the second stage of the beer formation, viz.: 
when it has been sprouted and dried. 

833. What is Sweet Wort? 

Sweet Wort is barley in the third stage of beer formation, viz.: 
after it has been sprouted, dried and " mashed " by grinding and 
steeping. 



132 Manual of Physiology. 



534. What are the most important properties of alcohol? 
Alcohol is solvent, volatile, antiseptic, inflammable, poison- 
ous, and has a strong affinity for water. 

535. What are the forms of the alcohol of commerce? 

Alcohol is sold in various degrees of purity, from the " Spirits 
of Wine," 90 per cent, strong, to the weakest grades of beer. 

836. What are the two classes of alcoholic drinks. 
Fermented and distilled. 

837. What are the two classes of fermented drinks? 
„ Those from sugar and those from starch. 

S3S. What are the t:co classes of alcoholic drinks obtained 
fro i)i sugar f 

Ciders and Wines. 

539. What are Ciders? 

Ciders are drinks made from apples and kindred fruits, by 
crushing the fruit and pressing out the juice. 

540. What are Wines? 

Wines are drinks made from grapes by crushing them and 
pressing out the juice. 

841. How is the alcohol of ciders and wines formed ' ? 

The alcohol of ciders is the result of fermentation or decay 
of the grape sugar in the juices of the fruits. 

842. What are fermented drinks made from starch called ? 
Malted or Brewed Drinks. 

543. What are the principal malted drinks? 
Beer, Ale, Porter, and Stout. 

544. What are the principal distilled drinks? 
Brandy, Gin, Whisky, and Rum. 

845. What are Brandies ? 

Brandies are distilled wines and ciders ; from grape wine is 
made grape brandy ; from apple cider, apple brandy ; from peach 
cider, peach brandy ; etc. 

846. What is Gin ? 
Gin is distilled beer. 

847. What is Whisky? 

Whisky is a distilled liquor obtained from the fermentation 
of corn, rye, potatoes, etc. 



Alcohol and Narcotics. 133 

848. What is Rum ? 

Rum is a distilled liquor obtained from the fermentation of 
molasses and water. 

849. What per cent, of alcohol do the various alcoholic drinks 
contain ? 

Wines, 5 to 25 per cent; Ciders, 3 to 10 per cent; Malt liquors, 
3 to 13 per cent; Brandy, 50 to 60 per cent; Gin, 45 to 55 per 
cent.; Whisky, 50 to 60 per cent.; and Rum, 60 to 70 per cent. 

850. How are alcoholic drinks adulterated ? 

Alcoholic drinks are diluted with large quantities of water to 
increase the profit in their sale ; and then, to restore the strength 
and flavor lost by the weakening, various vegetable and mineral 
poisons are added. 

851. What are the principal poisons used to give strength and 
flavor to alcoholic drinks ? 

Cocculus Indicus, Copperas, White Lead, Sugar of Lead, 
Strychnine, Stramonium, Sulphuric Acid, Nux Vomica, Arsenic, 
Logwood, Tobacco, Opium, Aloes, Oil of Cloves, etc. 

852. What alcoholic drinks are most adulterated? 

Wines are more adulterated than any other alcoholic drinks ; 
much of what is sold as wine is not made from grapes, but is 
corn whisky after various processes of " doctoring." 

853. Is alcohol a food? 

Alcohol is not a food, since it contains no nutritious elements, 
and destroys instead of building up the tissues. 

854. Does alcohol slake thirst? 

Alcohol never slakes thirst ; it produces thirst by absorbing 
the water from the tissues and fluids of the body. 

855. What causes the constantly growing thirst of beer 
drinkers ? 

Notwithstanding the fact that beer, on account of the water 
that it contains, seems to allay thirst, its alcohol, salt, and poison- 
ous adulterations increase thirst and create a craving for stronger 
drinks. 

856. Are beer drinkers healthy? 

Beer drinkers appear fleshy and robust, but they are really a 
very unhealthy class of persons. Their fleshy appearance is the 
result of a species of fatty degeneration; and injuries which 
would be but slight to other people prove serious to them. 



134 Manual of Physiology. 

857. Is new cider a safe and wholesome drink? 

All cider, from that just pressed from the crushed apples to 
that commonly called hard cider, contains some alcohol; and 
alcohol in all quantities and combinations is a deadly poison. 

S5S. Is alcohol a medicine? 

Alcohol has medicinal properties, but they are so overbal- 
anced by the evils resulting from its prescription, that thinking 
physicians are rapidly abandoning its use for remedies which are 
equally good and far safer. 

559. Are not some forms of alcoholic drinks allowable 
luxuries ? 

A proper study of the history of drunkard-making will con- 
vince any one that total abstinence from all forms of alcoholic 

beverages is the only safe course for all men. 

560. Is alcohol a poison ? 

Alcohol is a virulent poison, producing, in large doses, instant 
death, and in smaller doses, diluted with water, all the effects of 
slow poisoning. 

561. What is Alcoholism? 

Alcoholism is poisoning by alcohol, and includes all morbid 
phenomena resulting from the use of alcoholic beverages, from 
simple drunkenness to the most violent delirium tremens. 

562. What are the two forms of alcoholism ? 
Chronic and Acute. 

563. What is Chronic Alcoholism ? 

Chronic Alcoholism is a diseased state of the entire man, 
physical, intellectual and moral, resulting from the habitual use 
of alcoholic drinks. 

864. What is Acute Alcoholism ? 

Acute Alcoholism is simple poisoning, resulting immedi- 
ately from taking into the stomach a greater or less quantity 
of the poison ; it varies from the slightest tipsiness to profound 
intoxication and death. 

565. What are the two classes of causes of alcoholism? 
Predisposing Influences and Exciting Causes. 

566. What are the three classes of Predisposing Influences ? 
Moral, Social, and Personal Conditions. 

867. What are the principal predisposing moral conditions ? 
Unwholesome public sentiment, bad example, and unhappy 
domestic relations. 



Alcohol and Narcotics. 135 



868. In what two grades of society is an unwholesome public 
sentiment a predisposing influence in alcoholism ? 

In communities characterized by poverty and its attendant 
evils, ignorance and vice, there is but little restraint against the 
taking of alcoholic poisons ; and, on the other hand, in commu- 
nities characterized by wealth and luxury, there is too often an 
influence in favor of the use of wine, which brings death by 
poisoning to many a door. 

869. How does bad example lead to alcoholism ? 

The son of the drunkard, surrounded by drinking compan- 
ions, yields readily to the use of intoxicants ; and the young man 
moving in refined circles is influenced by the example of some 
" moderate-drinking " doctor or lawyer. 

870. How do unhappy domestic relations lead to alcoholism ? 

Unhappy homes and the resulting discontent and lack of 
motive lead to alcohol poisoning as a means of social entertain- 
ment or temporary forgetfulness. 

871. What social conditions predispose to alcoholism ? 

. Certain occupations, as well as the lack of occupation, lead to 
alcoholism. 

872. What two classes of occupation predispose to alcoholism ? 
Those which bring the workers into direct contact with the 

poison, as in manufacturing and selling; and those that expose 
persons to the inclemency of the weather, or to the strain of vio- 
lent or monotonous toil, as cab driving, iron puddling, type 
setting, etc. 

873. How does lack of occupation lead to the use of alcoholic 
drinks ? 

Club members, as well as common loafers, while away the 
time in " treating " and being treated ; and the poor unfortunate 
laborer, who fails to find employment, resorts to drink as a means 
of drowning his sorrow. 

874. What personal conditions predispose to alcoholism ? 

Hereditary taint, chronic disease, prescription by physicians, 
use of tobacco, etc. 

875. What effect has heredity upon alcoholism ? 
Alcoholism in the parent transmits its taint to the child, and 

is a strong influence in leading the child in the same path. 

876. How do chronic diseases lead to alcoholism ? 

Alcohol is resorted to for temporary relief from weakness and 
suffering in some forms of chronic diseases. 



136 Manual of Physiology. 



877. How do the prescriptions of physicians cause chronic 
alcoholism ? 

Physicians prescribe alcoholic stimulants for convalescent 
patients, and frequently arouse a hereditary or emotional ten- 
denc} T which terminates in death by alcohol poisoning. 

878. How does the use of tobacco lead to alcoholism ? 

Tobacco vitiates the taste, depraves the moral sense, and pro- 
duces a depressed state and a craving for stimulants which leads 
to the use of alcoholic beverages. 

879. What is the exciting cause of alcoholism ? 

The exciting cause in alcoholism is alcohol, taken into the 
stomach in some form of fermented beverage. 

880. What two classes of physical effects characterize chro?iic 
alcoholism ? 

General and Local. 

881. What are the ge?ieral physical effects of alcohol Poison- 
ing ? 

The blood is thinned and weakened, unhealthy fatty deposits 
occur in all parts of the body and all the tissues become impaired 
and vitiated. 

882. How does alcohol act upon the tissues of the body ? 

Alcohol hardens the tissues by absorbing water from them. 

8S3. What effect has alcohol on the coats of the stomach ? 

A small amount of alcohol taken into the stomach irritates 
its delicate mucous coat and produces dilation and congestion of 
its blood capillaries ; repeated doses harden the tissues, make the 
congestion permanent, and finally cause inflammation and ulcer- 
ation. 

S84. What effect has alcohol on the liver ? 

The effects of alcohol upon the liver are similar to those upon 
the stomach ; congestion, inflammation, and ulceration. Fatty de- 
generation of the liver is a common result of alcohol poisoning. 

885. How does alcohol affect the lungs ? 

Congestion of the lungs and pneumonia are frequently caused 
by the use of alcoholic stimulants. 

886. What effect has alcohol upon the brain ? 

Alcohol produces inflammation and hardening of the brain 
substance. 

887. How are functional derangements produced by chronic 
alcohol poisoning ? 

The various forms of functional derangements resulting from 



Alcohol and Narcotics, 137 

chronic alcohol poisoning are due to the effects of the poison on 
the nerve centers. 

888. What general functional derangements characterize 
chronic alcoholism ? 

General sensibility is lessened ; disordered motion is pro- 
duced, beginning with "slight unsteadiness of nerves," and fre- 
quently terminating in true paralysis. 

889. How does alcohol poisoning affect the special senses? 
Alcohol deadens the organs of special sense and lessens the 

intensity and accuracy of their perceptions. 

890. What is the character of the psychical derangements 
produced by chronic alcoholism f 

Alcohol has a debasing influence upon the mind, which grows 
with its use, involving in turn the moral sense, the will, and the 
intellect. 

891. How does chronic alcoholism affect the moral sense ? 

The sense of moral obligation is gradually destroyed ; senti- 
ments of honor, reputation, decency, and affection for the family 
give place to dishonesty, indifference, vulgarity, and selfishness. 

892. How does chronic alcoholism affect the will? 

The will is rapidly enfeebled by the habitual use of alcoholic 
drinks, until the drinker becomes utterly vacillating and irre- 
sponsible. 

893. How does chronic alcoholism affect the intellect? 

The progressive mental deterioration, resulting from the use 
of alcoholic drinks, finally reaches the intellect ; slowness in 
thought, difficulty in fixing the attention, loss of memory, and 
impairment of judgment characterize the confirmed drunkard. 

894. What are the forms of acute alcoholism ? 

Acute alcoholism, resulting from drinking at one time a 
greater or less amount of intoxicating liquors, has three distinct 
forms: simple intoxication, convulsions, and profound stupor. 

895. What does the word intoxicate mean? 

The word intoxicate means to poison, being derived from the 
Iyatin toxicum, which means poison. 

896. What are the three stages of intoxication ? 

Simple intoxication manifests in turn three well-marked 
stages: 1st, increased functional activity; 2nd, functional perver- 
sion; and 3rd, depression, ending in stupor. 

897. What are the characteristic marks for the diagnosis 
of alcoholism ? 

Simple intoxication is unfortunately too well known to need 



138 Manual of Physiology. 

rules for its determining ; the watery eyes, flushed cheeks, thick 
utterances, and staggering gait are known to every school-boy 
and girl as the marks of a drunken person. The red nose, trem- 
bling hand, and lack of honor are equally familiar characteristics 
of the chronic state. 

898. What is the prognosis in alcoholism ? 

Simple intoxication is generally followed by rapid recovery, 
marked by headache and a general feeling of " meanness." The 
prognosis in chronic alcoholism is always gloomy ; few ever 
recover. 

899. What are the two kinds of treatment for alcoholism ? 
Curative and Preventive Treatment. 

900. What are the two phases of curative treatment? 
Curing simple intoxication and curing chronic alcoholism. 

901. How may a drunken person be sobered? 

Recovery from acute alcohol poisoning is usually rapid, 
owing to the speedy elimination of alcohol from the system ; 
but where more prompt restoration is necessary, vomiting, dash- 
ing cold water on the face and neck are usually resorted to. 

902. How is chronic alcoholism cured? 

Since chronic alcoholism results from the habitual use of 
alcoholic drinks, the essential condition of a cure is a total dis- 
continuance of the use. 

903. What two means are there of securing the abandonment 
of the use of the poison ? 

Drinking is abandoned either by personal resolution and 
self-control, stimulated by a remnant of honor, and the love of 
friends, or by deprivation by friends or the state of the personal 
freedom necessary to obtain the poison. 

904. What are Inebriate Asylums? 

Inebriate Asylums are institutions where drunkards are 
placed under such restraint as is necessary to prevent their 
obtaining alcoholic poison in any of its forms, and where the 
attempt is made to restore both mind and body to their normal 
condition. 

905. What are the two classes of Inebriate Asylums ? 
State and Private. 

906. Has the state the right to deprive the drunkard of his 
liberty for the purpose of curing him? 

The state has the right to control any person who has become 
imbecile and vicious, and should pass laws by which drunkards, 



Alcohol and Narcotics. 139 



after an inquest similar to that held to establish lunacy, would 
be placed in asylums for one or two years. 

907. Is a drunkard a dangerous member of society? 

A confirmed drunkard is not only an immoral man and a 
criminal in intention if not in act, but he is a corrupter of 
morals and a breeder of crime. His influence is wholly per- 
nicious, and the state should protect itself by confining and, if 
possible, curing him. 

90S. What is Delirium Tremens ? 

Delirium Tremens is a delirious state in which the drunkard 
sees " snakes," and all kinds of vermin swarming about him ; it 
usually follows an attempt to " sober up " after a prolonged de- 
bauch, but may be induced by prolonged excess itself. 

909. Does alcohol produce insanity? 

Delirium Tremens frequently ends in insanity, and it is 
asserted upon good medical authority that forty per cent, of all 
insanity is due directly or indirectly to the use of alcoholic 
beverages. 

910. What are the two modes of preventive treatment of 
alcoholism ? 

By inculcating in those not addicted to it a moral opposition 
to its use, and by the enactment of such prohibitory laws by the 
state as will make it impossible to obtain it. 

911. How can a healthy moral sentiment against the use of 
alcohol be secured? 

By teaching thoroughly in the school-room and the family its 
true effects in all forms upon both body and mind. 

912. What steps has the state taken to prevent the increase of 
the disease ? 

Ivaws have been passed making it a crime to sell or give dis- 
tilled alcoholic poisons to minors and persons of unsound mind. 
These laws should include all forms of the poison. 

913. What are Narcotics ? 

Narcotics are nerve poisons which in their earlier effects and 
in small doses stimulate, but whose final effects are stupifying. 

914. What are the most pernicious narcotic poisons ? 
Tobacco, Opium, Chloral, and Cocaine. 

915. What is Tobacco ? 

Tobacco, Nicotiana tabacum, is a sturdy plant from three to 
six feet in height, whose large oblong leaves are dried and used 
in various ways to produce toxic self-abuse. 



140 Manual of Physiology. 



916. How is tobacco prepared for chewing ? 

Tobacco for chewing is rolled into little twists, or pressed 
into cakes or "plugs," or cut into fine shreds called " fine-cut." 

917. How is tobacco prepared for smoking? 

Tobacco for smoking is rolled into cigars or cut into small 
particles for use in pipes and in the making of cigarettes. 

918. What is Snuff? 

Snuff is very finely powdered tobacco leaves. 

919. How is Tobacco adulterated? 

Tobacco in all its forms is very largely adulterated : molasses, 
licorice, glycerine, and various aromatic flavors are used in chew- 
ing tobacco; nitrate of potash, opium, salt, etc., in smoking 
tobacco; and lime, powdered glass, oxide of lsad, etc., in snuff. 

920. How is Tobacco used ? 

Tobacco is used in three ways; chewing, in which a portion 
of the leaf is held in the mouth and crushed by the teeth, ming- 
ling its filthy and poisonous principles with the saliva, from 
which they are absorbed into the blood ; smoking, in which the 
smoke of the burning tobacco in cigar, cigarette or pipe is drawn 
back into the mouth and lungs ; and snuffing, in which minute 
particles are brought into contact with the delicate mucous mem- 
brane of the nostril by sudden inhaling. 

921. What is Nicotine. 

Nicotine is the poisonous principle of tobacco, occurring as 
an oily, colorless, slightly bitter liquid.. 

922. What is the amount of Nicotine in tobacco ? 

From two to eight per cent, of dried tobacco leaves are nico- 
tine. It is estimated by good authority that the amount of nico- 
tine contained in a single strong cigar, if thrown directly into 
the circulation, would produce instant death. 

923. What other poisonous substances are found in tobacco ? 
Ammonia, causing a dry, parched state of the mouth and 

throat ; carbonic oxide, weakening the action of the heart ; and 
carbonic acid, producing drowsiness and headache. 

924. What are the effects of tobacco upon the tissues of the 
body ? 

Tobacco inflames the tissues of the stomach, lungs, and 
heart, and thins and vitiates the blood, produces cancerous affec- 
tions of the throat, and deadens the nerves of the organs of 
special sense. 



Alcohol and Narcotics. 141 



925. What fimtlional derangements result from the use of 
tobacco ? 

Chronic indigestion, palpitation of the heart, uncertainty in 
the control of the voluntary muscles, and obtuseness of the 
senses. 

926. What effetl has tobacco on the intellectual and moral 
natures ? 

Tobacco blunts the intellect, destroys the memory, and dead- 
ens the moral sense. 

927. Does tobacco unfit the users of if for the highest intel- 
lectual activities ? 

Yes ; carefully gathered statistics in our military and public 
schools show that the users of tobacco cannot maintain the same 
standing with boys who do not use it. 

928. What effetl has tobacco upon the growth and develop- 
ment of the body ? 

Tobacco stunts the body as well as the mind ; boys who early 
acquire the habit seldom grow to full stature. 

929. Has tobacco any beneficial results ? 

Absolutely none ; no right-minded person would teach 
another not already addicted to the habit to use the filthy poison. 

930. How does the use of tobacco lead to the use of alcoholic 
drinks ? 

Tobacco creates thirst and a craving for stimulants, and at 
the same time deadens the moral sense, and prepares the way 
for all forms of self-abuse. 

931. Why is the smoking of cigarettes specially pernicious? 
Cigarettes are usually made from the poorest grades of 

tobacco, largely adulterated, and in smoking them fragments of 
paper, tobacco and the drugs used in adulteration are drawn 
directly into the lungs. 

932. What is " inhaling " ? 

Inhaling tobacco is drawing the smoke back into the lungs 
and allowing it to escape slowly through the nostrils ; it is by 
far the most harmful of all modes of using tobacco, and is a 
common habit of cigarette smokers. 

933. What steps should the state take to prevent the forma- 
tion of the tobacco habit ? 

The state should, in virtue of its right to prevent the 
debauching of its citizens, make it a penal offense to sell or give 
tobacco in any form to minors, and provide for the punishment 
of those found using it. 



142 Manual of Physiology. 

934. How can those who have formed the tobacco habit be 
cured ? 

There is but one cure for the tobacco habit : quit using it at 
once and forever. 

935. How can boys and young men be prevented from form- 
ing the tobacco habit ? 

Proper instruction on the filthiness and injuriousness of 
tobacco is a sure safe-guard against its use. 

936. What is Opium. 

Opium is a narcotic drug prepared from the juice of the 
White Poppy. 

937. What are the most common forms of opium f 

Crude opium is sold in a pasty, solid form, and medicinal 
preparations are usually in tinctures. 

93S. What is Morphine t 

Morphine is an alkaloid salt obtained from opium and pos- 
sessing all the toxic properties of the crude drug. 

939. How is opium used by those addicted to it ? 

Opium, like tobacco, is chewed and smoked ; it is also taken 
in tincture, as Laudanum ; and Morphine is swallowed or injected 
beneath the skin. 

940. What are the effects of chronic opium poisoning upon 
the physical organism and its functions t 

Under the use of opium poison general nutrition rapidly 
fails ; the body becomes emaciated and is frequently covered, 
with ulcerous sores; and there is constant and serious nervous 
derangement. 

941. What effects has opium on the intellectual and moral 
natures? 

Chronic opium poisoning destroys the intellect, and more 
effectually than any other of this class of poisons takes away the 
last vestige of truthfulness and honor. Persons thought to be 
above reproach in other matters, will lie without scruple con- 
cerning their use of the drug. 

942. What is the principal cause of the opium hah: 

The chief cause of the opium habit is the too common pre- 
scription of the drug in various forms by physicians, and its 
indiscriminate use to deaden pain. 

943. How is the opium habit cured ? 

There is probably no successful self-treatment for chronic 
opium poisoning ; the only safe course is to place the afflicted 



Alcohol and Narcotics. 143 



one in some properly conducted asylum, and even there the per- 
manent cure is uncertain. 

944. What is Chloral? 

Chloral, or Chloral Hydrate, is a powerful sleep-producing 
drug, obtained from Chlorine, and having in a pure state a close 
resemblance to crushed alum crystals. 

945. How is chloral used for self -abuse ? 

Chloral is used largely among wealthy and refined people, in 
small and often repeated doses, to produce sleep. 

946. What are the effetls of chloral upon the physical organi- 
zation and its f millions ? 

Chloral is a treacherous drug ; at first it seems to be only a 
producer of sleep, but it soon involves every tissue of the body 
in general ruin. Its primary deleterious effects are upon the 
nervous centers. 

947. What physical derangements are produced by Chloral? 

Chloral produces general intellectual and moral feebleness, 
exhibited in intellectual dullness, alternating with irritability and 
peevishness. 

948. How is the chloral habit cured? 

The chloral habit, like the use of opium, is cured simply by 
quitting the use of the poison, under the guidance and restraint 
of skilled attendants. 

949. What is Cocaine ? 

Cocaine is a highly poisonous alkaloid obtained from the 
leaves of the Coca plant. 

950. What are the effects of Cocaine poisoning ? 

The habitual use of cocaine produces anatomical and func- 
tional derangement of the vital centers, inducing a gloomy sort 
of mania. 

951. How can the cocaine habit be cured? 

The cocaine habit can be successfully treated only in an 
asylum under the control of a competent specialist. 



144 Manual of Physiology 



GENERAL HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 



Didactic Note. — Some hygienic and therapeutic matter is 
scattered throughout the book in the various divisions; it is the 
design to gather under this general head a brief outline of the 
two contrasted states of Health and Disease. Upon this skeleton 
the intelligent teacher can build a beautiful form of rules for the 
preservation of health and the prevention and cure of disease. 
Interesting and attractive as is the stud}- of the human body, "the 
casket of the soul," this purely intellectual delight must ever be 
subordinated in the instruction of youth to the utilitarian end. 
Make all the instruction tend toward the securing of such a 
knowledge of hygienic principles and the inculcating of such 
habits of self-control as will establish and maintain a healthy 
physical organism, controlled by a vigorous, sane mind. Practical 
hygienic topics can be presented in the school-room in such a 
manner as to start discussion in the homes, and much good be 
accomplished as a sort of medical missionary ; but do not attempt 
to make the " hull deestrict " over in a day. Be moderate in your 
demands of your pupils and modest in presenting the truth. 



ANALYTIC OUTLINE. 

General Hygiene and Therapeutics. 

i 1 Health. 2 2 Conditions. 
i 2 Characteristics. v> Proper diet. 

13 Good physique. 23 Pure air. 

23 Adaptability to climatic 33 Bathing. 

changes. 43 Clothing and shelter. 

33 Power of Endurance. 53 Exercise and rest. 

43 Resistance to morbic 63 Correct habits, 

influences. 73 Pure thoughts. 

53 Self-control. 3= Preservation. 
63 Cheerfulness. 13 Secure the "conditions." 



General Hygiene and Therapeutics. 



145 



23 Correct promptly any 
bad symptoms. 
1 Diseases. 
i 2 Characteristics. 

1 3 Structural deterioration. 
23 Functional derangement. 
33 Psychical derangement. 
2 2 Causes. 

i 3 Predisposing. 
2 3 Exciting. 
3 2 Classification. 
I 3 As to extent. 
1 4 General. 
2 4 Local. 
23 As to character. 
1 4 Structural. 
2 4 Functional. 



33 As to infectiousness. 

1 4 Contagious. 

2 4 Non-contagious. 
4 3 As to intensity and 
duration. 

1 4 Acute. 

2 4 Chronic. 
53 As to mode of progress. 

1 4 Continuous. 

2 4 Periodic. 
6 3 As to distribution. 

1 4 Sporadic. 

2 4 Epidemic. 
4 2 Treatment. 
13 Curative. 
23 Preventive. 



952. What is Health ? 

Health is a state of physical, intellectual, and moral sound- 
ness, in which the individual enjoys his existence and the per- 
formance of all the functions of both body and mind. 

953. What are the characteristics of health ? 

Health is characterized by a good physique, power to adapt 
one's self to climatic changes, power of endurance of both phys- 
ical and mental strain, power to resist disease, ready self-control, 
and cheerfulness. 

954. What are the conditions of health ? 

Proper diet, exercise and rest, pure air, bathing, clothing and 
shelter, correct habits, and pure thoughts. 

955. What is "healthy food"? 

Any article of food which contains proper nutriment is 
healthy for persons whose stomachs will digest it. No rule can 
be given in this matter. 

956. What is the best rule for selecting food? 

The best rule is to eat the various kinds of food in their sea- 
sons, selecting according to taste and former experiences. 



146 Manual of Physiology. 

957. What amount 0/ food should be eaten at each meal? 

No precise rules can be given for determining the amount of 
food to be eaten at one time. Eat what you want is a good gen- 
eral rule; those who are always dieting are truly the most 
miserable of people. 

958. What effetl should occupation have on the amount and 
kind of food? 

Persons engaged in physical labor need more tissue-building 
food, and usually a greater quantity of food than those engaged 
in intellectual pursuits ; but in all employments the hardest 
workers are generally good eaters. 

959. How should food be eaten ? 

Food should be eaten at regular intervals, amidst pleasant sur- 
roundings, slowly, and with the mirth and relish that come from 
social conversation ; food eaten in mental depression or ill-humor 
frequently lies for several hours in the stomach undigested. 

960. What is Hunger ? 

Hunger is a craving for food, caused by prolonged abstinence, 
and characterized by a feeling of uneasiness, faintness and pain. 

961. What is Thirst ? 

Thirst is an uneasy, somewhat painful sensation, indicative 
of a lack of water in the system. 

962. Is there danger in drinking water when heated by 
violent exercise ? 

A reasonable amount of pure, moderately cool water will not 
ordiifarily injure a person heated by exercise, no matter how 
warm he may be. 

963. Should water be drank il during meals " ? 

A glass of pure, cool water drank during a meal aids rather 
than retards digestion ; but a large quantity of water taken into 
the stomach dilutes the digestive fluids and weakens the digestion. 

964. Why is pure air necessary to good health ? 

Air furnishes the oxygen for the blood, and upon the deep, 
full breathing of pure air, more perhaps than upon any other one 
thing, depends robust, perfect health. 

965. How does foul air produce disease? 

Foul air brings microscopic germs from sewage and garbage 
into contact with tissues in which they germinate and breed 
disease. 

966. What are the evil ejfebls of breathing air in crowded 
rooms ? 

Expired air is heavily charged with carbonic acid, which is 



General Hygiene and Therapeutics. 147 

rebreathed in crowded rooms, producing drowsiness and head- 
ache. 

967. What is the true theory of ventilation ? 

The object to be sought in ventilation is to supply pure air 
without subjecting those for whom it is intended to the evil 
effects of a draft ; it is far better to rebreathe air tainted with car- 
bonic acid than to suffer from a draft of cold air. 

968. What is the best ventilation for closed rooms in winter ? 
The best ventilation is that furnished by a strong entering 

current of pure warm air from a hot-air furnace. 

969. Hoiu often should the body be bathed? 

No rule can be given ; the body should be kept clean from 
the accumulations of excrementitious substances and the dust 
which gathers upon its damp surface. 

970. Should a person bathe in coidor in warm water? 
Water for bathing the body should not be so cold as to pro- 
duce chilliness, nor so warm as to weaken and enervate. 

971. What clothing and shelter does health require? 

The maintenance of health requires such clothing and shelter 
as will furnish protection against the inclemency of the weather. 

972. What is the proper degree of heat for the school-room ? 

A school-room in which children are sitting without physical 
exercise should be kept at a temperature of 70 or 72 . School- 
rooms 'are more often too cold than too warm. 

973. Why is exercise necessary to health ? 

Strength and tone in all the textures of the body result from 
proper exercise ; an unused muscle or organ soon becomes inca- 
pacitated for the performance of its functions. 

974. What amount of exercise is required for good health ? 
Most people, even in sedentary employments, get from their 

daily avocations sufficient exercise, but when this is not enough, 
a short, rapid walk with a pleasant, sociable companion is the best 
form of exercise. 

975. What is rest ? 

Rest is a cessation of functional activity to permit the organs 
to repair the tissues destroyed by their use ; the most perfect 
rest is in sleep. 

976. How micch sleep is required for health ? 

The average amount of sleep required by adults is eight 
hours ; children should have ten hours. As a rule, those follow- 



148 Ma?iual of Physiology. 

ing intellectual pursuits require more sleep than those engaged 
in physical toil. 

977. What effetl have habits upon health ? 

Good health depends upon right living ; and right living is 
merely a sum of good habits. Bad habits are utterly incompati- 
ble with good health. 

978. Is intellectual exercise necessary to good health ? 

A certain amount of intellectual exercise is essential to good 
health ; just as " a sound mind requires a sound bod} 7 ," so a 
healthy physical organism requires an active, controlling mind. 

979. Is purity of thought necessary to health ? 

Pure thoughts are necessary to maintain the intellectual tone 
required for a clean, strong, right-acting body. 

980. What are the requirements for the preservatio?i of 
health ? 

The preservation of the health requires that all the condi- 
tions of health be secured, and that prompt action be taken to 
correct any derangement in structure or functions. 

981. What is Disease? 

Disease is any variation from the normal structure or func- 
tions of the bod}-. 

982. What are the characteristics of disease ? 

Disease manifests itself in a deterioration of tissues, a lessen- 
ing or perversion of functions, and a weakening of the intellect- 
ual and moral tone. 

983. What are the two classes of causes of diseases ? 
Predisposing and Exciting. 

984. What are the Predisposing Causes ? 

Predisposing Causes are peculiarities or conditions of the 
individual which make him susceptible to the action of disease- 
producing elements. 

985. What are Exciting Causes ? 

Exciting Causes are disease germs, malarial poisons, and 
various forms of irritating substances and forces which, by their 
direct action, produce disease. 

986. What effetl has occupation upon disease ? 

Different occupations not only predispose to different dis- 
eased states, but frequently become the exciting causes, as 
painters suffer from lead colic, coachmen have rheumatism in 
their shoulders, etc. 



General Hygiene and Therapeutics. 149 



987. How are diseases classified? 

Diseases are classified with respect to extent of the part 
affected, character of the affection, infectiousness, intensity, and 
duration, mode of progress, and distribution in communities. 

988. What are the two classes of diseases with respect to 
extent of the part affected? 

General and Local. 

989. What are the two classes of diseases with respect to 
character of the affection ? 

Structural and Functional. 

990. What are the two classes of diseases with respect to 
infectiousness ? 

Contagious and Non-contagious. 

991. What are the two classes of diseases with respect to 
intensity and duration ? 

Acute and Chronic. 

992. What are the two classes of diseases with respect to 
mode of progress ? 

Continuous and Periodical. 

993. What are the two classes of diseases with respect to 
distribution in communities? 

Sporadic and Epidemic. 

994. What are the two hinds of treatment of diseases? 
Curative and Preventive. 

995. What is curative treatment ? 

Curative treatment consists in removing the causes of dis- 
ease, and aiding nature in restoring healthy structure and func- 
tions. 

996. What are medicines ? 

Medicines are various substances used in the treatment of 
disease, to prevent or correct derangement of structure or func- 
tions. 

997. What is nursing the sick ? 

Nursing is caring for the sick in such a way as to give 
nature the best possible conditions for restoring health ; it is by 
far the most important part of curative treatment. 

998. What is preventive treatment ? 

The preventive treatment of disease consists in caring for 
the body and mind in such a manner as to maintain perfect 
health of structure and functions. 



150 Manual of Physiology. 

999. What are the functions of the state in the prevention of 
disease f 

It is the duty of the state to enact such laws as will remove 
conditions which injure the health of the people ; it is in accord- 
ance with this that Boards of Health created by law compel the 
removal of garbage, establish quarantines against disease-infected 
communities, etc. 

1000. Why should Physiology be studied? 

Human happiness depends upon a healthy condition of the 
body, and the health of the body depends upon the observance 
of a few simple Laws of Health ; therefore the study of Physi- 
ology becomes a duty binding upon all who would promote their 
own happiness and that of others. 



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